HazardousandToxicWaste有害有毒废弃物培训教材

HazardousandToxicWasteEnvironmentalconcernsandheathproblemsofhazardouswaste;toxicityanditsmeasurement

Learningoutcomes

Whenyouhavestudiedtheinformationinthislectureyoushouldbeableto:DefinesolidwasteandcomparesolidwastedisposalmethodsIdentifythesourcesoftoxicwasteIdentifymajorenvironmentaltoxinsExplaineffectoftoxicpollutantsExplainhowwasteisclassifiedTopicsSolidWasteToxicityClassificationandCharacteristicsofwastePharmaceuticalWastesHazardouswastemanagementTypesofSolidWastesMunicipalSolidWaste(MSW)-what“we”producedailyHazardousWasteAsubsetofsolidwasteIndustrialWasteAgriculturalWasteMiningWasteMedicalWasteAirPollutionControlResidualsWWTPresidualsOrganicandbacteriaresiduefromwasteWTPresidualsMainlymetallicsalt

HowDoYouManageSolidWaste?PreventMinimizeRecycleCompostWastetoEnergyLandfillWastePreventionandSourceReductionRe-engineeringofaproductorprocessUselesspackagingRe-useDonotletthematerialenterthewastestreaminthefirstplaceConsumelessmaterialsExample:Double-sidedprintingRecyclingTakingadiscardedproductandusingtomakeanewproductSameasfirstoneAnentirelynewproductExamples?RecycledmunicipalsolidwastecomponentsFibersNewspaperCardboardOfficePaperContainersGlassPlasticMetalMajorMarkets:Newpaperproducts,otherproducts(e.g.insulation)RecycledmunicipalsolidwastecomponentsFibersNewspaperCardboardOfficePaperContainersGlassPlasticMetalCommonlyrecycledplastics

再生塑料PET(polyethyleneterephthalate)Originaluse:BeveragebottlesRecycleduse:Carpetfibres,insulationHDPEOriginaluse:milk,juicebottlesRecycleduse:oilandsoapbottles,drainpipesPVCOriginaluse:foodwraps,bottlesRecycleduse:floortiles,trafficconesLDPEOriginaluse:binbags,wrapsRecyleduse:irrigationpipes,oilbottlesComposting堆肥AformofbiologicaltreatmentAerobic有氧DiverseFungi,bacteria,insects,wormsAnaerobic厭氧FairlywelldefinedgroupsofbacteriaCommonlyappliedtobio-solids,gardenwasteandagriculturalwasteLesscommonlyappliedtoMSWWhattypesofsolidwasteareproducedasaresultofpharmaceuticalproduction?ToxicityMeasurethedegreetowhichsomethingistoxicorpoisonousDependsondose,durationandrouteofexposureExposureroutesDermalInhalationIngestionToxinsTerm‘toxin’usuallyusedwhentalkingabouttoxicsubstancesproducednaturallyAtoxinisapoisonoussubstanceofmicrobial,vegetableorsyntheticoriginthatreactstokillcells,altergrowthorkilltheorganismPlantToxins–didyouknow?Stonesandpipsofapricots,plums,cherries,peaches,applesandpearsallcontainglycosideswhichifeatenreleasepotentiallylethaldosesofcyanideRhubarbcontainlargequantitiesofoxalicacid,whichinterfereswithcalciumabsorptionPlantToxins–didyouknow?ManyplantsoftheBrassicia(cabbage)familycontaingoitrogensgoitrogensinterferewiththeproductionofthyroidhormonesbypreventingiodineincorporationPotatoeswhichhaveturnedgreen,sproutedorhavedevelopedabittertastearetoxicbecausetheycontainsolanine.Defencemechanismfortheplant(e.g.anti-fungalproperties)Honeyfromrhododendronsishighlytoxic,ToxinsinNature–didyouknow?Theliveroftheblowfish(pufferfish)isextremelypoisonousThereiscyanideincassavaandalmonds(thereareofficiallimitsforcyanideconcentrationinmarzipan).Belladonna,strychnineandaconite:threeofthemostpoisonousplantsintheworld.

OneofthesedeadlyalkaloidtoxinswasusedtomurderAlexandertheGreat.Cherrylauryl:leavescancausecyanidepoisoning.

Oftenfoundinhedgesandinparks.Amanitaphalloides,thedeathcapmushroom,isacauseofacuteliverfailureTypesoftoxicentitiesChemicalExample;Heavymetals,pesticidesBiological‘thresholdvalue’canbeasingleorganismPlanttoxins-yewtreeAnimaltoxins–snakebitesPhysicalHeatandcold,IRandUVradiation,Xraysandgammarays,alphaandbetaraysEnvironmentalToxins

Somearedesignedtobetoxic(e.g.,pesticides,herbicides),whileothersareusedforindustrialpurposes.Mosttoxinscanbecategorizedintothefollowinggroups.DioxinsandFuransPCBs(Polychlorinatedbiphenyls)HCB(hexachlorobenzene)PesticidesHeavyMetalsDioxinsandFurans

DioxinsandFuransarechlorinatedchemicalsthatoriginatefromvarioussources,includingwasteincinerators,wastewaterfrompaperindustryandby-productsfromgeneralindustry.ThetermDioxinsinclude75polychlorinateddibenzo-p-dioxin(PCDD)and135polychlorinateddibenzofuran(PCDF)substances.Ofthese,17aretoxicinverysmallamounts.PCBs(Polychlorinatedbiphenyls)

PCBswereusedformanyyearsintransformers,capacitorsandcertainbuildingmaterials.AlthoughPCBsarenotproducedtoday,theyarestillfoundintheenvironmentfromthedisposalofproductscontainingPCBs.Hexachlorobenzene:HCBisaby-productfromchlorinegasandpesticideproduction.PesticidesPesticidesincludeDDTdichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane(insecticide),toxaphene,chlordane,lindaneandHCH.InsecticidesincludeOrganophosphorusandcarbamatecompounds(anticholinesterasecompunds=nerveagents)andChlorinatedhydrocarbonsEnvironmentalToxinsHeavyMetalsThemostcommonheavymetalsdisposedofbyindustryareMercury,Lead,Chromium,andArsenic.Heavymetalsarealsofoundnaturallyintheenvironment.EnvironmentalToxinsBiomagnificationandBioaccumulationBioaccumulation

生物蓄積性istheincreaseinconcentrationofapollutantfromtheenvironmenttothefirstorganism有機體inafoodchain食物鏈,itreferstohowpollutantsenterthefoodchainBiomagnification

生物放大istheincreaseofapollutantfromonelinkinafoodchaintoanother.Itreferstothetendency傾向ofapollutanttoconcentrate集中astheymovefromtrophiclevel營養水平inanecosystem生態系統tothenext.BiologicalMagnification

生物放大processwherebysubstancesmoveupthefoodchain,worktheirwayintoriversorlakes,andareeatenbyaquaticorganismssuchasfishThefishinturnareeatenbylargebirds,animalsorhumans.ThesubstancesbecomeconcentratedintissuesorinternalorgansastheymoveupthechainE.g.pesticidesorheavymetalsBioaccumulants:substances物質thatincreaseinconcentrationinlivingorganisms增加濃度生物astheytakeincontaminatedair,water,orfoodWhydocertainsubstancesbio-accumulate?Theyareveryslowlymetabolized代謝orexcreted排泄.Bioaccumulation

生物蓄積性occurswithinatrophiclevelandistheincreaseinconcentrationofasubstanceincertaintissuesoforganisms'bodiesduetoabsorptionfromfoodandtheenvironment由於從食物中吸收和環境Bioconcentration

生物富集occurswhenuptakefromthewaterisgreaterthanexcretion從水中吸收大於排泄.Thusbioconcentrationandbioaccumulationoccurwithinanorganism,andbiomagnificationoccursacrosstrophic(foodchain)levels.

FirstsynthesizedbyGermanchemistin1874in1930’sPaulMullerdiscoveredthatitwasapotentinsecticideDuring

WWIIitwasusedonsoldiersandrefugeestokillliceMullerreceivedaNobelPrizeforhisdiscoveryBythe1960s,DDThadbecomeahouseholditem,theworld’smostusedpesticide,andwasconsideredharmlessExampleofBioaccumulation–DDT(dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)

Gulls,whichfeedonclams,mayaccumulateDDTto40ormoretimestheconcentrationintheirprey.Thisrepresentsa400-foldincreaseinconcentrationalongthelengthofthisshortfoodchain.sprayingwetlandsformosquitoes

traceamountsofDDTaccumulateinmicroscopicaquaticorganisms(plankton)inwetland

clamsandsomefishfeedonhugeamountsofplankton(DDTconc.10timesgreaterthanthoseinplanktonhavebeenmeasuredinclams)ExampleofBioaccumulation-DDTWater0.000002ppmPhytoplankton0.0025ppmZooplankton0.123

ppmRainbowsmelt1.04ppmLaketrout4.83ppmHerringgull124ppmHerringgulleggs124ppmBiomagnificationofPCBSinaquaticfoodchainEndocrineDisruptorsEndocrineDisruptors內分泌干擾物:theseareoestrogenmimicchemicalsthatinterferewiththenormalfunctionoftheendocrinesystem(glandsincludingthyroid,adrenals,ovaries,testicles)Mimichormone,triggeridenticalresponse,blockahormoneDonotfollowthenormaldose/responsecurveActiveatmuchlowerdoses,especiallyinthefetusandnewbornEstradiols,progesterone,testosteroneNaturalandsynthetichormones,pesticides,industrialchemicalsusedinthemanufactureofpaintsanddetergents,phthalatesfromtheplasticsindustry,andmanypharmaceuticalsExamplesEstradiols Polyphenols DDTProgesterone TestosteroneInfertilityHormonallytriggeredhumancancersNeurologicaldisordersinchildrenHyperactivityAttentiondeficitDevelopmental&reproductiveproblemsinwildlifeEffectsofEndocrinedisruptorsEndocrinedisruptorsCancausecongenitalmis-programmingoftheendocrinesystemCanreducefertility,especiallyinfemalesRisktolong-termabundanceandviabilityofwildlifespeciesEntertheenvironmentfrommunicipal,agricultural,andindustrialwastewaters.Doseanddose-responseDoseistheactualamountofachemicalthatentersthebodyAcute(shorttimeperiod)Chronic(longtimeperiod)Dose-responserelationshipbetweenexposureandhealtheffectDoseanddose-responseThresholddose

閾值劑量–‘noobservedeffectlevel’.ThisisthelevelbelowwhichadverseeffectsarenotseeninthepopulationLD50 medianlethaldoseofa

toxin,

radiation,or

pathogen

isthe

dose

requiredtokillhalfthemembersofatestedpopulationIndividualsusceptibilityandsensitivesub-populationLevelmg/kg100%50%LD50LD50curveToxicities–LD50EthanolORAL-RATLD507060mgkg-1

EthylEthanol:7,060mg/kg=7.1g/kg=LD50i.e.about7bottlesofwinewillkill50%oftheratpopulationORL-CHDLDLO2000mgkg-1

(lowestpublishedlethaldoseforachild)Toxicities–LD50ParacetamolOralratLD50:2404mg/kgInadults,singledosesabove10

gramsor150

mg/kghaveareasonablelikelihoodofcausingtoxicity.Toxicitycanalsooccurwhenmultiplesmallerdoseswithin24hoursexceedstheselevels,orevenwithchronicingestionofdosesaslowas4

g/day,anddeathwithaslittleas6

g/day.Ethanol:10,000mg/kg=10g/kg=LD50i.e.about10bottlesofwineSolidwasteclassification–RegulatorybasisTheEuropeanWasteCatalogueandhazardouswastelistareusedfortheclassificationofallwastesandhazardouswastesintheEUEWCandHazardouswastelistaredesignedtoformaconsistentwasteclassificationsystemacrosstheEU.InChina:NCHW–NationalCatalogueofHazardousWastesTheyformthebasisforallnationalandinternationalwastereportingobligations,suchasthoseassociatedwithwastelicensesandpermits,theNationalWasteDatabasethetransportofwasteSolidwasteclassification–RegulatorybasisSolidwasteclassificationstepsConsulttheWasteManagementAct.liststhedifferentcategoriesofwasteConsulttheEPAdocumentEuropeanorChineseWasteCatalogueandHazardousWasteListtheoriginofwasteortypeofwaste.TheWasteCataloguegivesinformationonacceptabletestmethodstodeterminethepropertiesofthewastei.e.harmful,explosive,eco-toxic,toxicetc.Thecharacteristicsofthewasteismeasuredagainstspecificcriteria.PropertiesofwasteExplosiveOxidisingFlammableIrritantHarmfulToxicCarcinogenicCorrosiveInfectiousToxicforreproductionMutagenicEcotoxicResiduaryhazardouspropertyToclassifywasteashazardousornon-hazardous,wastemustbetestedforthesepropertiesoranalysedforwastecomponents CharacteristicofCorrosivityAnaqueoussolutionhavingapH≤2or≥12.5Examples:PrimarilycompoundingchemicalsGlacialAceticAcidSodiumHydroxideHazardouswastenumber:D002CharacteristicofToxicityApproximately40chemicalsmeetspecificleachingconcentrationsExamplesofpotentialtoxicpharmaceuticals:Arsenic m-CresolBarium Mercury(thimerosal)Cadmium PhenylmercuricacetateChloroform SeleniumChromium SilverLindane Preservatives:thimerosal&m-cresolHeavyMetals:Selenium,ChromiumandSilverExamplesofPharmaceuticalsExhibitingtheCharacteristicofToxicity

CharacteristicofReactivity“Reactivehazard"isusedtorefertoasubstancethatundergoesaviolentorabnormalreactioninthepresenceofwaterorundernormalambientatmosphericconditions.ExamplesEthylether,isopropylether,dioxane,tetrahydrofuranandmanyotherethersabsorbandreactwithoxygenfromtheairtoformunstableperoxideswhichmaydetonatewithviolenceCarcinogensTherearemanynaturalcarcinogens.AflatoxinB1黃曲霉毒素B1,whichisproducedbythefungusAspergillisflavusgrowingonstoredgrains,nutsandpeanutbutter,isanexampleofapotent,naturalmicrobialcarcinogen.CertainvirusessuchasHepatitisBB型肝炎andhumanpapillomaviruses人類乳頭狀瘤病毒havebeenfoundtocausecancerinhumans.Aspergillisflavus

MoreCarcinogensBenzene,asbestos石棉,andthewasterockofoilshalemining油頁岩haveallbeenclassifiedascarcinogenic.Asfarbackasthe1930s,industrialsmokeandtobaccosmokewereidentifiedassourcesofdozensofcarcinogens,includingbenzyopyreneandtobacco-specificnitrosaminesReactivealdehydessuchasformaldehydealsocarcinogenic—whichisalsoahazardinmakingplastics.Vinylchloride,fromwhichPVCismanufactured,isacarcinogenPharmaceuticalsEntering

theWasteStreamWasterawMaterialsfromManufacturingProcessWastageattheDistributor/Pharmacy/HealthcareFacilityExpiredPharmaceuticalsWastageattheConsumerLevelMetabolitesEnteringWastewaterWastedrugsfromhealthcarefacilitiesSewerSystemUnused,partialIVs,includingantibioticsLiquidsRedInfectiousWasteSharpsContainers,BagsYelloworWhiteChemotherapySharpsContainers, illegaldumps?Source:Brown,Michael,“DrumsofDeath”,Audubon,120July1980.HowisPharmaceuticalWasteGeneratedataHealthcareFacility?IVPreparationSpills/BreakagePartiallyUsedVials/SyringesIfcontaminatedtheyarebio-hazardousDiscontinuedunusedPreparationsDiscontinuedundatedPharmaceuticalsPatients’personalmedicationsOutdatedPharmaceuticalsWhereisPharmaceuticalWasteGeneratedoutsidetheindustry?PharmacyPatientCareUnitsHospitalsClinicsLongTermCareFacilitiesHomeHealthCare