2024-2025年亚太地区优惠贸易协定趋势与发展

ASIA-PACIFICTRADEANDINVESTMENT

ASIA-PACIFICTRADEANDINVESTMENTTRENDS2024/2025ii

ASIA-PACIFICTRADEANDINVESTMENTTRENDS2024/2025iii

Acknowledgements

ThisBriefwaspreparedbyNatnichaSutthivanaunderthesupervisionandco-draftingeffortsofWitadaAnukoonwattaka,EconomicAffairsOfficerintheTradePolicyandFacilitationSection(TPFS)oftheTrade,Investment,andInnovationDivision(TIID)attheUnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacific(ESCAP).

ThedevelopmentoftheBriefwascarriedoutundertheoveralldirectionofYannDuval,Chief,TPFS,TIID,andRupaChanda,Director,TIID.TheauthorsaregratefulforthevaluablefeedbackfromMiaMikic,AdvisoratLarge,Asia-PacificResearchandTrainingNetworkonTrade(ARTNeT),aswellastheinsightssharedbyparticipantstotheExpertGroupMeetingonEmergingTrendsinRegionalTradeAgreements,heldon17December2024.NatnichaSutthivanaformattedthereport,withthecoverdesigncreatedbyNucharatTuntiwigit.

ASIA-PACIFICTRADEANDINVESTMENTTRENDS2024/2025iv

Contents

Highlights 1

1.Introduction 3

2.Deepertradeagreements 5

2.1IncreasingcomplexityofthePTAnoodlebowl 5

2.2Broadeningthescopeoftradenegotiations 8

2.3FocusAreas:Digitaltradeandsustainability 9

2.4Beyondformaltradeagreements 13

3.Sustainabledevelopmentanddigitalprovisions 16

4.TradewithPTApartners 22

5.Conclusion 24

References 25

ListofFiguresandTables

Figure1.NoodlebowlofAsia-PacificPTAs,1971-2024 4

Figure2.NewPTAssignedandnegotiatedafterJanuary2024 6

Figure3.PatternofsignedandinforceAsia-PacificPTAs,bysubregions,1971-2024

7

Figure4.EvolutioninthepolicycoverageofAsia-PacificPTAs,inselectedpolicy

areas,1971-2024 9

Figure5.Developmentofsustainabledevelopmentanddigitalprovisionsin

Asia-PacificPTAs,1971-2024 17

Figure6.Noodlebowlofdigitalprovisionswiththelevelofcommitment,2000-2024

19

Figure7.Shareoftradewithpartnersofthein-forcePTAsin2024 23

Table1.BreakdownelementsofdedicatedAIprovisionsunderDEAsandPTAs 21

ASIA-PACIFICTRADEANDINVESTMENTTRENDS2024/20251

Highlights

•TheAsia-Pacificregioncontinuestobethelargestcontributortotheworldwidebuild-upofpreferentialtradeagreements(PTAs),accountingfornearly60%ofPTAsinforceworldwide.PTAshavebecomebigger,deeper,andincreasinglycoveringissuesrelatedtodigitaltradeandsustainabledevelopment.

•TheAsia-Pacificregion's"noodlebowl"oftradeagreementsnowincludes374PTAswithatleastonepartyintheAsia-Pacific.Ofthese,229areinforce,27havebeensignedbutareawaitingratification,and100areundernegotiation.

•BetweenJanuaryandDecember2024,eightnewPTAsweresigned,whileelevenwereundernegotiation.MostofthesenewPTAsarebilateralagreementswitheconomiesoutsidetheregion.Thebilateralapproachreflectsagrowingpreferencefortailoredandflexibletradeandinvestmentterms,addingcomplexitytotheexistingnoodlebowlofagreements.Thechoiceofnewpartnershighlightsastrategicshifttowarddiversifyingtraderelationshipsalignedwiththedrivetoseekmoreresilientsupplychains.

•TradeamongPTApartnersaccountsforabouthalfofalltradebyAsiaandthePacificeconomies–approximately50percentofexportsand53percentofthetotalimports.Notably,thistrendissignificantlydrivenbyEastandNorth-EastAsia,andSouth-EastAsia,whichareactivelyengagedinnegotiatingtradeagreements.

•Asidefromtariffpreferences,themostcommonlyincludedprovisionsinAsia-PacificPTAsare‘tradefacilitationandcustomscooperation’,followedby‘competitionpolicy’,and‘intellectualproperty’.Theseprovisionsarepresentinmorethan

50percentofthesignedandenforcedPTAs.Since2003,theinclusionofprovisionssurroundingsustainabledevelopmentanddigitaltradeinAsia-PacificPTAshasalsoaccelerated.

•AsofDecember2024,ofthe256signedandinforcePTAs,thereare150PTAsthathavesustainabledevelopment-relatedprovisions(includingprovisionsrelatedtolabourprotection,humanrights,gender,health,education,environmentandSMEs).Anewtypeoftradeagreementsalsoseemstobeemerging,integratingelementsoftrade,investmentandenvironmentalsustainability.Thisincludesthe‘GreenEconomyAgreement’(GEA)”and‘AgreementonClimateChange,TradeandSustainability’(ACCTS),signedin2022andin2024,respectively.

ASIA-PACIFICTRADEANDINVESTMENTTRENDS2024/20252

•Meanwhile,120PTAshavedigitaltrade(e-commerce)provisions.Increasingly,theseagreementsincorporateprovisionsaddressingemergingtechnologiessuchasArtificialIntelligence(AI)andtheInternetofThings(IoTs).Thenumberofstand-alone‘digitaltradeagreements’(DTA)or‘digitaleconomyagreements’(DEA)intheAsia-Pacificregionalsoincreasedtoeightin2024.MembershipsintheDigitalEconomyPartnershipAgreement(DEPA),establishedbyChile,NewZealandandSingapore,isexpanding,potentiallyreducingtheriskofcreatinganew“digitalnoodlebowl.”Additionally,ASEANmemberstatesarenegotiatingtheDigitalEconomyFrameworkAgreement(DEFA),aimingtoestablishthefirstcomprehensivedigitaleconomyagreementwithintheASEANregion.

•AsofDecember2024,theWTOJointStatementInitiative(JSI)onElectronicCommercefinalizeda"stabilizedtext"fortheAgreementonElectronicCommerce,markingsignificantprogressafterfiveyearsofnegotiations.ThiscouldprovideausefulcommonbasisforfutureDTAsandDEAs.However,keyJSIparticipants,includingtheUnitedStates,Brazil,Indonesia,andTürkiye,haveraisedconcernsonthistext.IntegratingtheagreementintotheWTO'slegalframeworkalsoposeschallenges,asitrequiresconsensusfromallWTOmembers,includingnon-participantsintheJSI.

•Meanwhile,alternativeapproachestotradeandeconomiccooperationhavealsogrownsignificantly.Specifically,theIndo-PacificEconomicFrameworkforProsperity(IPEF)hasmadeprogress,whileBRICSmembershipcontinuestoexpand.Theseandotherregionaltradeinitiativesarelikelytoplayanincreasinglyimportantroleasthemultilateraltradingsystemcontinuestofaceheadwinds.

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1.Introduction

TheAsia-Pacificregioncontinuestobethelargestcontributortotheworldwidebuild-upofpreferentialtradeagreements(PTAs),accountingfornearly60%ofallPTAsinforceworldwide

.1

Thesizeoftheregionalnoodle-bowlhasexpanded,encompassing374PTAsinvolvingatleastonepartyoftheAsia-Pacificregion.Amongthese,229arecurrentlyinforce,27aresignedandpendingratification,and100areundernegotiation(figure1)

.2

In2024,eightagreementsweresignedandelevennegotiationslaunched,mostofwhicharebilateraltradeagreementsinvolvingnon-Asia-Pacificeconomies.Notably,severalAsia-PacifichasformedtradeagreementswiththeUnitedArabEmirates,followedbyNewZealandandtheRepublicofKorea.ThesenewlysignedagreementsandnegotiationsunderscoretheAsia-Pacific’ssustaineddynamicsofformingextra-regionalandbilateralagreements.

Asthenumberofagreementsgrows,tradeagreementsmovetowardsbroadeningtheirscope.Recentnegotiationsincreasinglyaddressvariouspolicyareas,includingsustainabledevelopmentandthedigitaleconomy.Atthesametime,alternativeframeworksfortradeandeconomiccooperationinvolvingAsia-Pacificeconomiesareincreasinglyprevalent.

1AsofDecember2024,thenumberofPTAsinforceintheAsia-Pacificregionis229agreements,whilethetotalnumberofagreementsinforcenotifiedtotheWorldTradeOrganizationis373agreements.SeetheWTO’sRegionalTradeAgreementsdatabase,

/UI/PublicMaintainRTAHome.aspx.

2Ofthe374Asia-PacificPTAs,therestincludesterminatedorsuspendedagreements.

ASIA-PACIFICTRADEANDINVESTMENTTRENDS2024/20254

Figure1.NoodlebowlofAsia-PacificPTAs,1971-2024

Source:APTIAD(accessed24December2024).

Note:*Notallmembersareshown.PlurilateralPTAsarenotrepresented,i.e.,Groupof8PreferentialTradeAgreement(D-8PTA),GlobalSystemofTradePreferences(GSTP),ProtocolonTradeNegotiations(PTN)andTradePreferentialSystemamongtheOrganizationoftheIslamicConference(TPS/OIC).TheeconomyunderagreyrectangleshapereferstoESCAPmembersandassociatemembers.

ASIA-PACIFICTRADEANDINVESTMENTTRENDS2024/20255

2.Deepertradeagreements

2.1IncreasingcomplexityofthePTAnoodlebowl

Thenumberofnewnegotiationsandnewlysignedtradeagreementscontinuestoflourish.EconomiesinSouth-EastAsia,andEastandNorth-EastAsiahavemadesignificantcontributionstotheincreaseinPTAsintheAsia-Pacificregion.Additionally,in2024,negotiationsfortheIndia-PeruandMalaysia-theRepublicofKoreaPTAsresumedafterbeingpausedin2019.

FromJanuarytoDecember2024,eightagreementshadbeensigned,andelevennewnegotiationshadbeenlaunched(figure2)

.3

Ofthe17agreementsintheAsia-PacificregionthathaveenteredintoforcebetweenJanuary2023andDecember2024,tenhavenotbeennotifiedtotheWTO

.4

TheseunnotifiedagreementsraiseconcernsaboutcompliancewithcrucialnotificationandtransparencyobligationsundertheWTOrules

.5

ThesenewagreementsreinforcealreadyexistingtrendinAsia-Pacifictradeagreementsofanincreasingpreferenceforsigningbilateraltradeagreementswitheconomiesoutsidetheregion.Asof2024,approximately55percentofallPTAsinforceinvolveeconomiesbeyondtheAsia-Pacificregion,and79percentarebilateraltradeagreements.AllAsia-Pacificsubregionsshareasimilartrend,withbilateraltradeagreementspredominating.

EastandNorth-EastAsialeading,followedbySouthandSouth-WestAsiaandSouth-EastAsiahaveasubstantialnumberofsignedandinforceextra-regionalPTAs.Unlikeothersubregions,whichoftenestablishmoreagreementswithpartnersoutsidetheAsia-Pacific,South-EastAsiaandthePacificPTAspredominantlyfocusonPTAswithAsia-Pacificpartners(figure3a).

3Theeightnewlysignedtradeagreementsin2024are:(1)Australia-UnitedArabEmirates;(2)HongKong,China-Peru;(3)India-EFTA;(4)Kyrgyzstan-EU;(5)NewZealand-UnitedArabEmirates;(6)SriLanka-Thailand;

(7)VietNam-UnitedArabEmirates;and(8)AgreementonClimateChange,TradeandSustainability(ACCTS).Moreover,the11newnegotiationsthatcommencedin2024are:(1)Bangladesh-theRepublicofKorea;

(2)China-ElSalvador;(3)Georgia-Israel;(4)Georgia-theRepublicofKorea;(5)Indonesia-GulfCooperationCouncil(GCC);(6)Indonesia-SriLanka;(7)Japan-UnitedArabEmirates;(8)NewZealand-UnitedArabEmirates;

(9)thePhilippines-Chile;(10)TheRepublicofKorea-Thailand;and(11)Türkiye-GCC.

4TenPTAsenteredintoforcein2023,andanothersevenPTAsenteredintoforcein2024.Oftheseagreements,seventradeagreementshavebeennotifiedtotheWTO,i.e.,twoagreementsenteredintoforcein2023–Australia-theUnitedKingdomPTAandNewZealand-theUnitedKingdomPTA,andanotherfiveagreementsenteredintoforcein2024–China-EcuadorPTA,China-NicaraguaPTA,China-SerbiaPTA,NewZealand-EUPTA,andTürkiye-UkrainePTA.

5SeeWTOTransparencyMechanismsforRTAs,availableat

/english/tratop_e/region_e/trans_mecha_e.htm.

ASIA-PACIFICTRADEANDINVESTMENTTRENDS2024/20256

Figure2.NewPTAssignedandnegotiatedafterJanuary2024

Source:APTIAD(accessed24December2024).

Note:*Notallmembersareshown.GulfCooperationCouncil(GCC),EuropeanFreeTradeAgreement(EFTA)andEuropeanUnion(EU).TheAsia-PacificsubregionsincludeEastandNorth-EastAsia(ENEA),thePacific,South-EastAsia(SEA),NorthandCentralAsia(NCA),andSouthandSouth-WestAsia(SSWA).TheeconomyunderagreyrectangleshapereferstoESCAPmembersandassociatemembers.

Countryblocsandplurilateralagreementsaccountforapproximately10percentand11percent,respectively,ofthetotalagreementsinforce(figure3b).Althoughsmallinnumber,theireconomicsignificanceissubstantialandcontinuestogrow.TheComprehensiveandProgressiveAgreementforTrans-PacificPartnership(CPTPP)andtheRegionalComprehensiveEconomicPartnership(RCEP)–areprominentplurilateralagreements,oftenreferredtoas‘mega-regionaltradeagreements.’

Membershipsofplurilateralagreementscontinuetoexpand.TheRCEP,signedby15economiesin2020,isconsideredtheworld’slargesttradingbloc,representingapproximately30percentofworldGDP

.6

ByDecember2024,Chile,SriLankaandHongKong,ChinaformallyrequestedaccessiontotheRCEP

.7

TheCPTPP,initiallysignedby11economiesin2018

,8

hasexpandeditsmembershipbyone.TheUnitedKingdomwassuccessfullyaccededandofficiallystartedimplementingtheagreementinDecember2024,becomingthefirst(andnon-Pacific)partytotheCPTPPagreementsinceitsestablishment.

6The15RCEPmembersinclude10ASEANmembers(BruneiDarussalam,Cambodia,Indonesia,LaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic,Malaysia,Myanmar,Philippines,Singapore,Thailand,andVietNam)andAustralia,China,Japan,NewZealandandtheRepublicofKorea.

7BangladeshandChilehaveexpressedinterestinbecomingRCEPmembers.

8The11CPTPPoriginalsignatoriesareAustralia,BruneiDarussalam,Canada,Chile,Japan,Malaysia,Mexico,NewZealand,Peru,SingaporeandVietNam.

ASIA-PACIFICTRADEANDINVESTMENTTRENDS2024/20257

Additionally,moreeconomies,includingChina,CostaRica,Ecuador,Indonesia,Ukraine,Uruguay,andTaiwanProvinceofChinahavesubmittedformalaccessionrequeststoCPTPP.Similarly,theGulfCooperationCouncil(GCC)hascommencedtwonewtradenegotiationswithIndonesiaandTürkiye.Overlappingmembershipswillgrow,furthercomplicatingthe“noodlebowl”oftradeagreements.

Figure3.PatternofsignedandinforceAsia-PacificPTAs,bysubregions,1971-2024

(a)Geographicalcoverage

(b)Scope

(c)Type

Source:APTIAD(accessed24December2024).

Note:TheAsia-PacificsubregionsincludeEastandNorth-EastAsia(ENEA),thePacific,South-EastAsia(SEA),NorthandCentralAsia(NCA)andSouthandSouth-WestAsia(SSWA).

ASIA-PACIFICTRADEANDINVESTMENTTRENDS2024/20258

2.2Broadeningthescopeoftradenegotiations

Whilethenumberofagreementscontinuestogrow,theirscopecontinuestoexpandbeyondtradeingoodsandtariffliberalization.MostofthePTAssignedoverthepastdecadesareFreeTradeAgreementsandEconomicIntegrationAgreements(FTAandEIA)(figure3c).Thesebroadeningtradeagreementsareoftencalledthe“ComprehensiveEconomicPartnershipAgreement(CEPA)”(ESCAP,2022).Accordingly,severalsignedandenforcedPTAsgobeyondtheliberalizationoftradeingoods,coveringservicesandinvestmentaswellasaddressingbehind-the-borderissues,suchasgovernmentprocurement,competition,intellectualproperty,environmentandSMEs.

ThistrendhasbeenprimarilydrivenbyeconomiesinEastandNorth-EastAsia,followedbySouth-EastAsiaandthePacific.AsofDecember2024,morethan50percentofthesignedandenforcedPTAsincludeprovisionson“tradefacilitationandcustomscooperation”(approximately70%),followedby“competitionpolicy”and“intellectualproperty”(figure4).Manynewtradeagreementnegotiationstendtoconcentrateonnon-tradetopics,incorporatingawidespectrumofdomesticissues,suchasaddressingsustainabledevelopmentissues(health,education,gender,humanrights,andenvironmentprovisions)andcross-cuttingissues,i.e.,digitaleconomy(dataprivacyprotection,cross-borderdataflows,onlineconsumerprotection,andcybersecurityprovisions).Thesustainableanddigitalprovisionsarediscussedindetailinthenextsection.

Inaddition,severallongstandingagreementshavebeenrenegotiatedandupgradedtomaketheirprovisions“fitforpurpose”andenhancetheirinclusivityandcomprehensiveness.ThekeyamendmentareasoftheupgradedagreementsbytheAsia-Pacificeconomiesareoftenfocusingonenhancingmarketaccesscommitmentsfor“tradeinservices”oraddressinganemergingissue,suchasincorporatingadditionale-commerceprovisions.Toadapttotheevolvingglobaleconomicarchitecture,sometradeagreementshaveundergonemultipleupgrades.

Forexample,theChinaandNewZealandPTA,whichis16yearsold,completedtheratificationprocessoftheUpgradeProtocolin2022andrelaunchedtheupgradednegotiationsthisyear.Inthepreviousupgradedround,thepartiesnotonlyfurtherreducedtariffratesandnon-tariffmeasures,butalsoincorporatednewchaptersone-commerce,competition,governmentprocurementandenvironment.The2024upgradeaimstofurtherliberalizeservicetradeandinvestmentbasedonthenegativelistmodel.Moreover,JapanandtheEuropeanUnionhaveconcludedruleson

ASIA-PACIFICTRADEANDINVESTMENTTRENDS2024/20259

cross-borderdataflowsintheirEconomicPartnershipAgreement(EPA),whichenteredintoforceinJuly2024.Thisdealensuresefficientdataflows,enablingbusinessestooperatewithoutcumbersomeadministrativeorstoragerequirements(EuropeanUnion,2024).

Figure4.EvolutioninthepolicycoverageofAsia-PacificPTAs,inselectedpolicyareas,1971-2024

250

NumberofPTAswithspecificpolicyareassigned(peryear)

200

150

100

50

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

0

GoodsServices

Investment——TradeFacilitation&CustomsCooperation

CompetitionPolicy——IntellectualProperty

——SustainableDevelopment*——E-commerce

Source:APTIAD(accessed24December2024).

Note:*Sustainabledevelopmentincorporatesthefollowingprovisions,includingprovisionsexplicitlymentioningtheterm“sustainabledevelopment”aswellasprovisionsrelatedtosevennon-tradesustainabledevelopment-relatedtopics,whicharehumanrights,health,SMEs,labourprotection,gender,environmentandeducation.

2.3FocusAreas:Digitaltradeandsustainability

Digitaltradeandthegreeneconomyhavebecomekeynegotiationtopics.Stand-aloneagreementsfocusingonspecificareas,particularlydigitaltradeandthegreeneconomy,haveemerged.DigitalTradeAgreements(DTAs),alsoknownasDigitalEconomyAgreements(DEAs),focusexclusivelyondigitaltrade.Similarly,environmentalagreementssuchastheGreenEconomyAgreement(GEA)andtheAgreementonClimateChange,Trade,andSustainability(ACCTS)havebeenintroduced.

IntheAsia-Pacificregion,thethreesubregionswithdeeptradeagreementsaretheleadingsignatoriesofthesedigitalandenvironmentalagreements.South-EastAsia,followedbyEastandNorth-EastAsiaandthePacific,haveengagedinatleastoneoftheeightoutoftenexistingDTAsglobally

.9

OftheseeightDTAs,fiveareinforce,andthreeareundernegotiation.TheDTAnegotiationbetweenSingaporeandthe

9Ofthe10DTAsglobally,Asia-Pacificeconomieshaveparticipatedineightofthem.Specifically,theeightDTAscomprisefiveinforceagreementsandthreependingnegotiations.Specifically,theJapan-UnitedStatesDigital

ASIA-PACIFICTRADEANDINVESTMENTTRENDS2024/202510

EuropeanUnionsubstantiallyconcludedthisyear.Similarly,South-EastAsiaandthePacificactivelycontributedtotheenvironmental-orientedagreements.

ThefirstDTAwassignedbetweenJapanandtheUnitedStatesin2019andenteredintoforcein2020.DTAsgenerallybuilduponexistingdigital(e-commerce)provisionsintraditionaltradeagreements.However,unlikedigitalprovisionsorchaptersundertradeagreements,theDTAsfacilitatedomesticregulatoryreformsand“soft”cross-bordercollaborationonawiderangeofissues,suchasdatainnovation,digitalidentities,cybersecurity,anddigitalinclusion(WarranandFan,2022).Theyfurtherencompassinclusivedigitaleconomyandsustainabledevelopmentprovisions,suchastheinclusionofspecialtreatmentandcooperationfromMSMEs,aswellasregionalcapacity-building.Theseconcludedprovisionsfurthercomplementmultilateralandregionaldigitaltradeframeworks.Notably,recentdevelopmentsin2024,suchastheproposedWTOE-commerceAgreementandASEANDigitalEconomyFrameworkAgreement(DEFA),areparticularlysignificant(Box1).

SingaporeisattheforefrontofnegotiatingDTAs,activelyparticipatinginmorethanhalfoftheestablishedDTAs.ApartnershipbetweenChile,NewZealand,andSingapore—theDigitalEconomyPartnershipAgreement(DEPA)hasexpanded.In2023,theRepublicofKoreaofficiallyaccededasthefirstnon-foundingmemberofthisplurilateralDTA.EligibleWTOmembers,Canada,China,CostaRica,andPeruareprogressingwiththeaccessionprocedures.TheUnitedArabEmirates,ElSalvadorandUkrainehaveappliedtojointheDEPA.TheDEPA’smodularapproach,wherepartiescanselectanyofthe16digitaleconomymodulestoimplement,couldenablemoreeconomiestoengage.Thesepolicyspacesofferpromisingprospectsinshapingtheharmonizeddigitaltraderulesandmitigatingtheriskofcreatinganew“digitalnoodlebowl”(ESCAP,UNCTAD,UNIDO,2023).

Regardinggreeneconomy-focusedagreements,boththeGEAandtheACCTaregroundbreakingagreementsthatencompasselementsoftrade,investmentandsustainabledevelopment.ThefirstGEAistheAustralia-SingaporeGEAsignedin2022.Additionally,theplurilateralACCTSwassignedin2024byCostaRica,Iceland,NewZealand,andSwitzerland.Theseagreementsseektoshapecommonstandardsontradeandinvestmentinenvironmentalgoodsandserviceswhilecomplementing

TradeAgreement(DTA)wassignedin2019,followedbytheAustralia-SingaporeDigitalEconomyPartnershipAgreement(DEA)(signedin2020),DigitalEconomyPartnershipAgreement(DEPA)(signedin2020),Singapore-UnitedKingdomDEA(signedin2022),andtheRepublicofKorea-SingaporeDigitalPartnershipAgreement(signedin2022).TheSingapore-EFTADEA(launchedinFebruary2023),theRepublicofKorea-EUDTA(launchedinOctober2023),andSingapore-EUDTA(launchedinJuly2023)areundernegotiation.Additionally,twoDTAsoutsideAsia-PacificareMERCOSURAgreementonElectronicCommerce(signedin2021)andtheUnitedKingdom-UkraineDTA(signedin2023).

themultilateralinitiatives.Theliberalizationoftradeinenvironmentalgoodsandservicesisakeycomponentoftheseagreements

.10

Forinstance,theACCTScoversover300environmentalgoodsandmorethan100environmentalandenvironmentallyrelatedservices.Eachagreementalsoaddressesspecificactions:theSingapore-AustraliaGEApromotesdecarbonizationandjobcreationingreensectors,whiletheACCTfocusesonaframeworktotackleharmfulfossilfuelsubsidiesandecolabelling.

TheGEA,similartotheDEA,isdevelopedfromanexistingbilateraltradeagreement.Incontrast,theACCTisanopenplurilateralagreementformedwitheconomiesthatdonothavepriortradeagreements.Currently,stand-aloneenvironmentalagreementsarefewbutholdsignificantpotentialforfutureexpansion.Forinstance,theACCTwillbeopenforWTOmemberstojoin,withNorwayactivelyconsideringbecomingasignatory.

Box1.ImportantdevelopmentsintheWTOE-CommerceAgreement

andASEANDEFA

TheAsia-Pacificeconomieshaveincreasinglyinfluencedthecraftingofdigitaltraderules.Australia,Japan,andSingaporeareco-convenersoftheWTOJointStatementInitiative(JSI)onE-commerce.TheJSIonE-commerceaimstoshapeglobaldigitaltraderules.AsofJune2024,91WTOmembersaccountingforover90percentofglobaltradehaveparticipated,with20ofthemfromtheAsia-Pacific(WTO,2024)

.11

AsofJuly2024,80membersagreedonthestabilizedtextfortheAgreementonE-commerce,althoughsomemembers,includingtheUnitedStates,Brazil,Indonesia,andTürkiye,expressedreservations.AmongthehighlightsinthestabilizedtextistheclausewhichprohibitsPartiesfromimposingcustomsdutiesonelectronictransmissions.Theprohibitionremainsindefiniteunlessamendedinafuturerevieworagreement.Moreover,thestabilizedtextalsoprovidesframeworksforpracticesinelectronictransactions,paperlesstrade,dataandconsumerprotection,cybersecurity,andtransparency

.12

10SeeGEAAnnexB1.1(EnvironmentalGoodsList),AnnexB1.2(EnvironmentalServicesList),availableat

.sg/sagea-text-full.pdf

.TheACCTAgreementtextisnotavailableasofOctober2024.

11The20Asia-PacificeconomiesareAustralia,BruneiDarussalam,China,Georgia,Indonesia,Japan,Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,LaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic,Malaysia,Mongolia,Myanmar,NewZealand,thePhilippines,theRepublicofKorea,theRussianFederation,Singapore,Thailand,Türkiye,andHongKong,China.

12TheWTOJSIonE-commercecoverssixk