The Electoral System英国与美国选举制度

TheElectoralSystem------BritainandtheUnitedStates2021/6/271BuckinghamPalace2021/6/272Electoralsystem:UKInEngland,electionshavebeenusedasaparliamentaryprocesssincethe13thcentury.Thesecretballotwasadoptedin1872andfullequalvotingrightswonforwomenin1928.Allregisteredmembersofthepublicaged18andovermayvoteinparliamentaryelections.TheBritishHouseofCommonsiselectedforamaximumoffiveyears;theprimeministercancallageneralelectionatanytime.

2021/6/273

THELISTINGThecallingofanelection–theelectionwritBy-electionsNominationofcandidatesElectioncampaignsandexpensesCorruptpracticesTheparliamentaryfranchiseThepollDisputedelectionsEffectsofthefirst-past-the-postsystemElectoralbehaviourinBritain2021/6/274Thecallingofanelection

–theelectionwrit

TheroyalproclamationannouncingthedissolutionofParliamentandthesummoningofanewParliamentistheauthorizationforthewritsforageneralelection.ThedecisiontodissolveParliamentismadebythesovereignontheadviceoftheprimeminister.UndertheParliamentAct1911themaximumdurationofaParliamentisfiveyears.2021/6/275

Onaverage,since1900electionshavebeenheldbetweeneverythreeandfouryears.Ontwooccasionsinthe20thcenturytwoelectionshavebeenheldinoneyear:in1910and1974.

2021/6/276By-elections

Awritforaby-electionisissuedbytheclerkoftheCrownonreceiptoftheSpeaker‘swarrant.Aby-electionmustbeheldnotlessthan11ormorethan21daysaftertheissueofthewrit.2021/6/277Nominationofcandidates

TheHouseofCommonsconsistsof659members,eachrepresentingasingle-memberconstituency.Eachcandidatemustbenominatedbyaproposer,aseconder,andeightotherelectors.Inpractice,theoverwhelmingmajorityofcandidatesarenominatedbypoliticalparties.Furthermore,themajorityofthepartycandidatesarenominatedbytheConservative,Labour,andLiberalDemocratparties.2021/6/278Elizabeth2021/6/279Electioncampaignsandexpenses

Theelectionexpensesofeachcandidatearestrictlycontrolled.Thepurposesofelectionexpensesarealsostrictlycontrolledandallexpensesmustbedeclaredandpublished.Allelectionliteraturemustincludethenameandaddressofthepublisherandoftheprinter.Eachcandidateisallowed,however,tosendoneelectoralcommunicationfreetoeveryelectorintheconstituency.

2021/6/2710Corruptpractices

InearliertimesBritishelectionswerenotoriouslycorrupt,buttheintroductionofthesecretballotin1872andthepassingoftheCorruptandIllegalPracticesAct1883havevirtuallyeliminatedcorruption.Apersonfoundguiltyofacorruptorillegalpracticeisdisqualifiedfromvotingforfiveyearsinaparliamentaryelection.IncontrasttotherestoftheUK,however,examplesofpersonationandintimidationhavebeenfairlycommoninNorthernIreland.

2021/6/2711Theparliamentaryfranchise

Toqualifyasanelectorinaparliamentaryelectioninaparticularconstituencyapersonmustberesidentinthatconstituencyontheannualqualifyingdate(10October),beaBritishcitizenoracitizenoftheRepublicofIreland,ofatleast18yearsofage(21before1969),andnotbesubjecttoanylegaldisqualification.Theelectoralregisteriscompiledannuallyandcomesintoforceon15Februaryfollowingthequalifyingdateof10October.Listsofelectorsarepubliclydisplayedtoenablevoterstoensurethattheirnameshavebeenincluded.2021/6/2712WindsdorCastle2021/6/2713Thepoll

Sincethegeneralelectionof1918pollingorvotinghastakenplaceinallconstituenciesonthesameday.Priortothis,pollingwasspreadoverthreetofourweeks.Votersareprovidedwithpollingcardswhichdirectthemtospecifiedpollingstationslocatedindifferentpartsoftheconstituency.Thepollingstationsopenat7a.m.andcloseat10p.m.2021/6/2714Disputedelections

IfitisallegedthattheelectedcandidateisdisqualifiedfromsittinginParliament,orthatacandidatehasengagedinbribery,corruption,orintimidationofelectors,orthatpeopleineligibletovotehavevotedintheelection,thecaseisreferredtoanelectioncourt.ThisconsistsoftwoHighCourtjudgeswhomay,accordingtotheevidence,declaretheelectionvoidordeclarethecandidatewiththenexthighestnumberofvoteselected.Inthepast,disputedelectionswerenotuncommon,buttheyarenowcomparativelyrareandaremostlyconcernedwithallegeddisqualificationofthesuccessfulcandidate.2021/6/2715Effectsofthefirst-past-the-postsystem

Thesimplefirst-past-the-postsystemofvotinghasanimportanteffectonelectionssinceitispossibleinagivenconstituencyforacandidatetobeelectedwithonlyarelativemajorityofvotes.Thiscan,ofcourse,onlyoccurwheretherearethreeormorecandidates,butsincethisisnotuncommon,suchresultsarenotrare.

2021/6/2716ElectoralbehaviourinBritainElectoralbehaviourinBritainischaracterizedbyaconsiderabledegreeofhomogeneityandthemovementofsupport(orswing)fromonepartytoanotheratageneralelectionisusuallymaintainedfairlyuniformlyoverthewholecountry.2021/6/2717

TheWhiteHouse2021/6/2718ElectionsintheUnitedStates

ThesystemisaproductnotonlyofAmericanpoliticsbutalsoofthedevelopmentoftechnologyasproblemsregardingtransportationandcommunicationsweresolvedinthepast200years.Basically,thesystemisnotthatcomplicatedwhentracedbackwards.Inthesimplestterms,themembersoftheCollegeofElectorsfrom50statesandtheDistrictofColumbiagettogetherandcasttheirvotesforthepresidentandvice-presidentoftheUnitedStates.Thecandidateswhogetthehighestnumberofvoteswin.2021/6/2719THELISTINGVoting

Eligibility

Voterregistration

Absenteevoting

Mailballots

Earlyvoting

Votingequipment2021/6/2720Eligibility

Theeligibilityofanindividualforvotingissetoutintheconstitutionandalsoregulatedatstatelevel.Theconstitutionstatesthatsuffragecannotbedeniedongroundsofraceorcolor,sexorageforcitizenseighteenyearsorolder.Beyondthesebasicqualifications,itistheresponsibilityofstatelegislaturestoregulatevotereligibility.2021/6/2721Voterregistration

EverystateexceptNorthDakotarequiresthatcitizenswhowishtovoteberegistered.Somestatesallowcitizenstoregistertovoteonthesamedayoftheelection.Traditionally,votershadtoregisteratstateofficestovote,butinthemid-1990seffortsweremadebythefederalgovernmenttomakeregisteringeasier,inanattempttoincreaseturnout.2021/6/2722Absenteevoting

VotersunableorunwillingtovoteatpollingstationsonElectionDaycanvoteviaabsenteeballots.AbsenteeballotsaremostcommonlysentandreceivedviatheUnitedStatesPostalService.Despitetheirname,absenteeballotsareoftenrequestedandsubmittedinperson.Typicallyavotermustrequestanabsenteeballotbeforetheelectionoccurs.2021/6/2723Mailballots

Mailballotsaresimilarinmanyrespectstoanabsenteeballot.HowevertheyareusedforMailingPrecinctswhereonelectiondaynopollingplaceisopenedforaspecificprecinct.InOregon,allballotsaredeliveredthroughthemail.2021/6/2724Earlyvoting

Earlyvotingisaformalprocesswherevoterscancasttheirballotspriortotheofficialelectionday.2021/6/2725Votingequipment

VoterscastingtheirballotsinpollingplacesrecordtheirvotesmostcommonlywithopticalscanvotingmachinesorDREvotingmachines.Votingmachineselectionistypicallydonethroughastate'slocalelectionjurisdictionincludingcounties,cities,andtownships.Manyoftheselocaljurisdictionshavechangedtheirvotingequipmentsince2000duetothepassageoftheHelpAmericaVoteAct(HAVA),whichallocatedfundsforthereplacementoflevermachineandpunchcardvotingequipment.2021/6/2726LevelsofElection

Federalelections

Presidentialelections

Congressionalelections

SenateelectionsHouseofRepresentativeselections

Stateelections

Localelections2021/6/2727Federalelections

TheUnitedStateshasapresidentialsystemofgovernment,whichmeansthattheexecutiveandlegislatureareelectedseparately.Itistheresponsibilityofstatelegislaturestoregulatethequalificationsforacandidateappearingonaballotpaper,althoughinordertogetontotheballot,acandidatemustoftencollectalegallydefinednumberofsignatures.2021/6/27282021/6/2729Presidentialelections

ThePresidentandtheVicePresidentareelectedtogetherinaPresidentialelection.Theelectionisindirect,thewinnerbeingdeterminedbyvotescastbyelectorsoftheElectoralCollege.Inmoderntimes,votersineachstateselectaslateofelectorsfromalistofseveralslatesdesignatedbydifferentpartiesorcandidates,andtheelectorstypicallypromiseinadvancetovoteforthecandidatesoftheirparty2021/6/2730Congressionalelections

ElectionstoCongresstakeplaceeverytwoyears.Congresshastwochambers.Senateelections

TheSenatehas100members,electedforasixyeartermindual-seatconstituencies(twofromeachstate)withone-thirdbeingrenewedeverytwoyears.UntiltheSeventeenthAmendmenttotheUnitedStatesConstitutionin1913,Senatorswereelectedbystatelegislatures,nottheelectorateofstates.2021/6/2731CongressofUS2021/6/2732HouseofRepresentativeselections

TheHouseofRepresentativeshas435members,electedforatwoyearterminsingle-seatconstituencies

Houseelectionsareusually,butnotalways,correlatedwithpresidentialelections.Astheredistrictingcommissionsofstatesareoftenpartisan,districtsareoftendrawnwhichbenefitincumbents.2021/6/2733Stateelections

Statelawandstateconstitutions,controlledbystatelegislaturesregulateelectionsatastatelevelandlocallevel.Variousofficialsatstatelevelareelected.Sincetheseparationofpowersappliestostatesaswellasthefederalgovernment,statelegislaturesandtheexecutive(thegovernor)areelectedseparately.Proposalstoamendthestateconstitutionarealsoplacedontheballotinsomestates.2021/6/2734Localelections

Atthelocallevel,countyandcitygovernmentpositionsareusuallyfilledbyelection,especiallywithinthelegislativebranch.Theextenttowhichofficesintheexecutiveorjudicialbranchesareelectedvaryfromcountytocounty.Someexamplesoflocalelectedpositionsincludesheriffsatthecountylevelandmayorsandschoolboardmembersatthecitylevel.2021/6/2735SupremeCourtofUS2021/6/2736FeaturesoftheelectionsystemPartysystems

Ballotaccess

Campaignfinance

Primariesandcaucuses2021/6/2737Partysystems

TheUnitedStateshasaverystrongtwo-partysystem,whichmeansthattherearetwodominantpoliticalparties.Itisextremelydifficultforanyonetoachieveelectoralsuccessundera"thirdparty".Asageneralrule,theDemocraticandRepublicanpartiesaretoo