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Chapter4小麦制粉

(Flourmilling)1.1小麦工艺品质

1.1.1小麦分类小麦硬度指数hardnessindex在规定条件下粉碎小麦样品,留存在筛网上的样品占试样的质量百分数,简称HI。1.1小麦工艺品质

1.1.1小麦分类硬度指数越大,表明小麦硬度越高,反之表明小麦硬度越低。小麦硬度指数测定仪中华人民共和国国家标准-小麦GB1351-2008Thefollowingtypesofwheatareclassifiedbasedprimarilyoncolor,hardnessofthekernel根据小麦的粒质和皮色分为以下五类:硬质白小麦(Hardwhite):种皮为白色或黄白色的麦粒不低于90%,硬度指数不低于60%的小麦。软质白小麦(Softwhite):种皮为白色或黄白色的麦粒不低于90%,硬度指数不高于45%的小麦。硬质红小麦(Hardred):种皮为深红色或红褐色的麦粒不低于90%,硬度指数不低于60%的小麦。软质红小麦(Softred):种皮为深红色或红褐色的麦粒不低于90%,硬度指数不高于45%的小麦。混合小麦(mix):不符合上述四种规定的小麦。1.1.2小麦的加工品质Fig.3.1Thestructureofwheatgranule1)皮层BranLayer14%ofkernelSeveralthinlayerContainsaleurone/əlʊəˈrəʊn/layer(糊粉层)Viable(能自行发育的),protectedlayer,surroundsendospermenzymeactivityContains:protein,lipid,minerals,vitamins,phenolic(/fɪˈnɒlɪk/)compounds(酚类),celluloseFig.3.2Thestructureofbranlayer2)StarchyEndosperm83%ofkernelNon-viable,butmayhaveenzymaticactivityContainshighlevelsofstarch75%ofwheatendospermsourceoffermentablesugarsContainsextensibleglutenproteins(可扩展的面筋蛋白)Verylittlemineral,fiber,fat&vitaminsFig.3.3ThestructureofstarchyendospermStarchGranulesinProteinMatrixFig.3.4Starchgraunlesinproteinmatrix3)Germ2-3%ofkernelViabletissueContainsembryo(/ˈembriəʊ/)allrudimentary

(/ˌruːdɪˈmentri/

基本的)

growthtissuesResponsibleforgerminatione.g.duringmaltingofbarley(

/ˈbɑːli/大麦)ContainshigherquantitiesoflipidthanotherfractionsFig.3.5Thestructureofgerm1.2小麦制粉工艺(Flourmillingprocess)Flourmillingisthecontinuousprocessthatisusedtotransformtherawwheatberry(小麦粒粉质胚乳)intoaformwhichisofusetothebakingandotherindustries.1.2.1TheaimofwhiteflourmillingWhiteflouristheultimateproductofflourmilling.Theaimofwhiteflourmillingistoextractamaximumamountofendospermfromthewheatberry.白面粉是面粉加工的终极产物。碾磨白面粉的目的是从小麦浆果中提取最大量的胚乳。1.2.1TheaimofwhiteflourmillingTheouterbranlayersbecometheco-productoftheprocesscalledwheatfeed(麸皮粉).Manyoperationsalsoseparatetheembryonic(/ˌembriˈɒnɪk/胚

)partoftheberry,knownasthegerm.外层的麸皮层成为这个过程的副产品,称为小麦饲料(麸皮粉)。许多操作也分离了浆果的胚胎部分,称为胚芽。Thereisjustoneacceptedmannerinwhichflourisproducedglobally.Thisisknownasthegradualreductionsystem(逐步研细法).1.2.2TheflourmillingprocessTheflourmillingprocesscanberepresentedbyasimpleblockdiagram(Fig.3.7).Therearethreeprincipaldivisionswithintheprocess.Theseareknownasthebreakingsystem(研磨系统),thepurificationsystem(/ˌpjʊərɪfɪˈkeɪʃn/清粉系统)

andthereductionsystem(粉碎系统).Thepurificationsystemisnotfavouredbymanymillersandmaybeabsentfromprocesses.ItisoftenreplacedbywhatisknownastheSizingsystem(筛理系统).Fig3.7Blockdiagramofmillingprocess.1.2.3面粉产品处理(1)杀虫

面粉撞击杀虫机,可杀死面粉中各个虫期的害虫及虫卵。(2)漂白、熟化

Ageingofwheatflourforbreadmakingisduetooxidation,eitherbystorageforsomeweeksaftermillingorbychemicalaction.Freshlymilledflourproducesaweakerandlessresilientdough,andhencealess‘bold’loaf,thanflourwhichhasbeenaged.

用于制作面包的小麦粉的老化是由于氧化,要么是由于碾磨后储存了几周,要么是由于化学作用。与老化过的面粉相比,新磨的面粉产生的面团更弱,弹性更差,因此也就不那么“膨胀”。1.2.4面粉产品处理小麦胚乳含有叶黄素、类胡萝萝卜素等黄色素,所以新制面粉颜色略黄。经过2-3周储藏后,由于缓慢的空气氧化作用使色素破坏,面粉颜色变白,同时筋力也因氧化作用而有所增加,这就是面粉的自然熟化。面包用粉和多用粉拌入过氧化二苯甲酰粉剂,只起单纯的漂白作用。(3)空气分级小麦面粉是由大小不同的粉粒组成,小的lµm以下,大的超过200µm,最小的粉粒主要是蛋白质碎片,含蛋白质多,再大一些的粉粒主要是游离的淀粉粒,含蛋白质少,更大的粉粒则是胚乳碎块,保持着原有的淀粉粒镶嵌在蛋白质中的结构,蛋白质含量与小麦胚乳相同。根据这一情况,即可得到高蛋白小麦粉(粉粒小于17µm).低蛋白小麦粉(粉粒大小在17-40µm)一般蛋白质含量的小麦粉(粉粒大于35或40µm)。1.2.5等级粉和专用粉生产工艺特点(1)等级粉(gradeflour)的生产同时生产两种以上等级粉的制粉过程,称为等级粉生产。按加工精度不同可分为特一粉、特二粉、标准粉、普通粉四类。(2)专用粉(tailoredflour)的生产我国目前面粉品种比较单一,国外的面粉品种就比较齐全,如面包粉、饼干粉、家庭用粉和其它用粉。专用粉与通用小麦粉之间的主要不同在于用途的针对性不同,对于各种粉的蛋白质含量、水分、粒度、强度以及灰分等各方面的要求、也不相同。可以通过小麦粉配制的方法生产专用粉,因此专用粉又称配制粉。第二节面制食品的加工2.1面制食品的分类及特征面制食品是指以小麦面粉为主要原料制作的一大类食品。根据加工方式可分为焙烤食品和蒸煮食品2大类。面包饼干糕点焙烤食品挂面:普通挂面、风味挂面、营养保健挂面方便面馒头蒸包蒸煮食品以小麦粉为主要原料,经过汽蒸或水煮方式熟制的一类食品。焙烤食品是指以谷物或谷物粉为基础原料,加上油、糖、蛋、奶等一种或几种辅助原料,采用焙烤工艺定型和成熟的一大类固态方便食品。

2.2面制食品的原辅料及其加工特性其它辅料主要原料食盐面粉水酵母辅料糖油脂蛋及蛋制品乳及乳制品改良剂营养强化剂2.2.1面粉1面粉的化学组成(1)蛋白质Protein8%-15%ofwheatflourisproteinHighproteinfloursfromhardwheatbestforbread,>11%Low-proteinfloursfromsoftwheat<9%forcakes,cookies(饼干),pastries(糕点)Gliadin麦醇溶蛋白andglutenin麦谷蛋白themostimportantones,~85%Whenhydratedandmixed,formgluten,keycomponentofbreadRemainingglobulins麦球蛋白andalbumins麦清蛋白,-and-amylases面筋的主要成分是麦醇溶蛋白gliadins和麦谷蛋白glutenins.麦醇溶蛋白1条多肽链构成,仅分子内二硫键,较紧密的三维结构,呈球形,多由非极性氨基酸组成。水合时具有良好的黏性和延伸性,缺乏弹性。麦谷蛋白17-20条多肽链构成,呈纤维状,既有分子内二硫键,又有分子间二硫键,富有弹性但缺乏延伸性。Thegluteninfunctionisabletoformanextensivethree-dimensionalnetworkofmoleculesthroughdisulfidebonding,hydrogenbondingandhydrophobicinteractions.Allcontributetotheformationofacohesiveelasticdough.PropertyBehaviour/characteristicsSolubilityLowsolubilityinwaterandneutralbuffers.Productsareviscoelasticmaterials.Smallamountofmaterialsolublein70%(v/v)ethanol.MolecularstructureProteinchainscross-linkedbyintermolecular(分子间)disulfidebonds,andinsolublein70%(v/v)ethanol.Highmolecularweightandlowmolecularweightsubunitspresent.Regionsofα-helix,β-structureandrandomcoil(无规则线圈)structure.Amountinwheat30-45%oftotalprotein.AminoacidcontentHighinglutamine(≈30%)andproline(≈13%)Loweramountsofalltheotheraminoacids.Cysteinecontent≈2.4%(as1/2cystine).*

Glutenins,compositionandpropertiesPropertyBehaviour/characteristicsSolubilityExtremelylowsolubilityinwaterandneutralbuffers.Productsareofstickytexture.Dryproductsaremostlysolublein70%v/vethanol.MolecularstructureSinglepolypeptidechainscapableofsomeintramoleculardisulfidebonding.Considerableamountofα-helicalandrandomcoilstructure.Highincidenceofβ-turns.Molecularweight30000-50000Amountinwheat30-45%oftotalprotein.AminoacidcontentVeryhighinglutanine(≈35%).Prolinealsohigh(≈20%).Lowlevelsofarginine,lysineandhistidine.Lowlevelsofasparticacidandglutamicacid.Cysteinecontent≈3%(as½cystine).*Gliadins:compositionandpropertiesDoughFormationDoughsareviscoelastic(flowsandrecoils)Structurelargelyfromproteinscalledglutensconsistofgliadinsandglutenins30%ofaminoacidresiduesarehydrophobicwaterinsoluble;canbindwaterKneadingbreadsubjectsittoshearforcespromoteinteractionsbetweenglutenin

moleculesH-bonding,hydrophobicinteractions,S-Sbondscreateselasticproteinnetworks(films)whichtrapgasviscosityenhancedbygliadinsandstarchmolecules面团形成过程谷蛋白→先吸水膨胀→同时吸收醇溶蛋白、清蛋白、球蛋白→疏水基交联,谷蛋白分子内二硫键转变为分子间二硫键→形成巨大的立体网络结构骨架→填充淀粉、脂肪、水、糖和无机盐等→良好黏弹性和延伸性的面团。Initially,glutenisformedwhenflourandwateraremixedtogether.Theproteinsintheflour,gluteninandgliadincrosslink,usingthewaterasavehicletoformgluten.DoughFormationKneadtooptimumrheology

optimumdoughstrengthover-kneadingbreaksproteinstructurebeforekneadingafteroptimalkneading50mm1mm粗面筋面团在水中搓洗时,淀粉、可溶性蛋白质、灰分等成分逐渐离开面团而悬浮于水中,最后剩下一块具有黏弹性和延伸性的软胶状物质,即粗面筋。Thewheatglutencomplexisaviscoelasticmixturecontainingaboutequalamountsofglutelins(谷蛋白)(gluteninsinthecaseofwheat)andprolamins(醇溶谷蛋白),knownasgliadinsinthecaseofwheat.含水量60-70%,又称湿面筋(wetgluten)。经烘干,除水后为干面筋(vitaldrygluten)。Thismixture,asitseparatesfromthewashingofawheatflourdoughwithwaterordilutesaltsolution,containsabout33-35%solids.Itcanbedriedcarefully,e.g.flashdried(快速干燥),toproducetheglutenofcommerce(商业)whichcanbereconstitutedinwatertogivearubbery(有弹力的)massoftexturesimilartotheundriedmaterial,andistermed`vital‘gluten(活面筋).Itcontainsabout80%protein,10%starch,5%lipids,plusminerals,fibreandotherimpurities.面粉中蛋白质的含量和质量是影响加工最主要的因素。质量包括两方面:一是面筋蛋白占面粉总蛋白的比例。越高,黏弹性越好。二是麦谷蛋白和麦醇溶蛋白的相对含量。比例合适。谷蛋白过多,弹性和韧性太强,无法膨胀;醇溶蛋白过多,面团太软弱,网络不牢固。(2)carbohydrates75%ofthetotalweightLargelycomposeofstarchNativestarchgranuleinsolubleAmyloseandamylopectinwithinsphericalgranulesinrigid,semi-crystallinenetworkMillingcandamageasmallpercentage,increasewaterabsorptionandenzymeexposureSomeothercarbohydratesAsmallamountofsimplesugar,cellulose,fiber(~1%)损伤淀粉(damagedstarch)在小麦制粉过程中,由于磨的挤压、研磨左右,有少量淀粉粒被破坏,这样的淀粉称为损伤淀粉。Someofthestarchgranulesareexposedtohighpressuresduringthemillingprocessandtheirsurfacesmaybebecomemechanicallyrupturedordamaged.Thesemi-crystallinestructureofthestarchgranulegivesitsimilarcharacteristicstoothersolidparticles,thusitcanbedamagedbymechanicaloperations.Theimportanceofdamagedstarchinthebreadmakingprocessisconsiderableandgenerallytwofold.Damagedstarchabsorbs2to4timesitsweightinwaterascomparedto0.4bynativestarch.Damagedstarchgranulesarealsosubjecttopreferentialattackbysomespecificenzymes(oneisβ-amylases).Someoftheseenzymesareincapableofattackinganintactnativestarchgranule.Starchdamageshouldbeoptimizedasithasbothpositiveandnegativeeffectsonbreadquality.Asmentioned,damagedstarchhasmuchgreaterwaterretentioncapacity;however,toomuchstarchdamageleadstostickydough,strongproofing,andundesirableredcrustcolor.(3)WheatlipidsLipidsaredistributedthroughoutthewheatkernelandrepresentcomponentsofmembranes,organelles(细胞器)andspherosomes(membrane-bounddroplets)(圆球体)intissuessuchasthealeuronelayers(糊粉层),scutellum(角质鳞片)andembryo.Intheendosperm,lipidsareassociatedwithproteinsmostlyasfullyacylatedglycerides,whilethoseassociatedwiththestarcharemonoacyllipids.Outsidethestarchtheycanexistastriglycerides,freefattyacidsandotherfreeforms.Althoughthelipidsarewidelydistributedinthekernel,theyareminorconstituentsinallbutthegerm.Lipidbilayers(双分子层)formthebasisofbiomembranes,inwhichpolarlipids,particularlyphospholipids,areprominent.Inwheat,bilayersareabletoassociatewithproteinsandthesestructuresareinadynamicstate.(4)水分13.5±0.5%,过高,易酸败变质,游离水(5)矿物质以灰分表示,越低,面粉精度越高。近年来,普遍采用粉色试验代替灰分试验。(6)维生素B族维生素,烟酸、泛酸和VE,VA含量很少,几乎不含VC、VD常在面粉中添加一定量的维生素,以强化面粉的营养。(7)WheatenzymesTheenzymesinwheatareofsomeimportancetotheperformanceoftheflourinbreadmaking,especiallytheamylases.AmylasesTheamylaseareexamplesofhydrolasesastheycatalysethehydrolysisofthepolysaccharidesinthestarch.Oneofthemainenzymesofthistypeisα–amylase(EC3.2.1.1).Itisknownasanendo-hydrolase.Duringbreadmakingitreactsslowlywithdamagedstarchgranules,butrapidlywithgelatinisedstarchtoproduceamixtureofdextrins,otheroligosaccharidesandsmallamountsofmaltose.降落值(FallingNumber

)反应淀粉酶含量和活性。淀粉酶能使淀粉液化,使黏度下降。以一定质量的搅拌器在被酶液化的热凝胶糊液中下降一段特定高度所需的时间来表示(S)。降落值↓表明糊黏度↓淀粉被酶解程度↑,酶活力↑作为面粉等级标准和专用粉重要指标。FN小于200,表示酶活性过强;200~300表示酶活性正常,大于300,则表示酶活性过低。

面粉的工艺性能

小麦面团品质大多体现在小麦面团的流变学特性方面,小麦加工品质好坏可以通过测定面团的流变学特性得到鉴定。MeasuringtherheologicalpropertiesofdoughBrabender®Farinograph®-E(1)粉质图指标吸水率(Waterabsorption):指面团最大稠度处于500±20Bu时所需加水量。以占含水14%湿基面粉质量的百分数表示,准确到0.1%。面粉的吸水率越高,则做面食时加水量越大,这样不仅能提高单位重量面粉的出品率,而且能做出疏松、柔软、存放时间较长的面食。

面团形成时间(Developmenttime):从零点(开始加水)直至面团稠度达到最大时所需搅拌时间。一般软麦面粉筋力差,形成时间短,在1~4min之间,适合做糕点、饼干等;硬麦面粉筋力强,形成时间在4min以上,可制作挂面、馒头、面包等产品。美国面包粉的形成时间要求为(7.5±1.5)min。我国商品小麦的形成时间平均为2.3min。稳定时间(Doughstability):指面团粉质曲线首次达到500Bu与离开500Bu所经历的时间。越长,稳定性越好。最重要的指标。面团的稳定时间越长,说明面团的加工稳定性越好,面筋对剪切抵抗力越强,越适于制作面包;稳定时间中等大小的面粉适于作馒头、挂面;稳定时间短的适宜做饼干、糕点。曲线的宽度反映面团的弹性,越宽弹性越大。

衰减度(Degreeofsoftening):曲线最高点中心与达到最高点后12分钟曲线中心两者之差。表明在搅拌过程中的破坏速率,越高,面筋越弱。弱化度表明面团在搅拌过程中的破坏速率,也就是对机械搅拌的承受能力,也代表面筋的强度。该值越大,面筋越弱,形成的面团越易流变,面团不易加工。

评价值(valorimetervalue):曲线从最高处开始下降起12分钟后的评价计分。它是根据面团形成时间和面团弱化度给粉质曲线图一个综合评分。一般认为强力粉的评价值在70以上,薄力粉在30以下,中力粉在30~70之间。(2)拉伸曲线将粉质仪制备好的面团揉搓成粗短面条,将两端固定,中间挂钩向下拉,抗拉伸阻力以曲线的形式自动记录下来,称拉伸图。TheExtensogramrecordedon-lineandrepresentedasacolordiagramonthemonitorshowstheexertedforceasafunctionofthestretchinglength(time).面团延伸性(Extensibility)(E)面团拉伸至断裂时曲线的水平长度,以cm表示,是面团黏性、横向延伸性的标志。抗拉伸阻力(Resistancetoextension)(R)在横坐标50mm处的曲线高度,以Bu表示,是面团弹性、纵向弹性的标志。拉伸比(Rationumber)延伸性(cm)与拉伸阻力(Eu)的比值。用cm/Eu表示,反映抗拉伸强度。能量(Areabelowthecurve)(energy)指曲线所围成的总面积,以cm2表示。亦代表面团强度。拉伸图既反映面团强度和抗延伸阻力,又反映面团易流动性和延伸所需要的黏合力。2.2.2waterThepropertiesofthedoughwillvaryaccordingtothelevelofaddedwater.Toolittleandthedoughwillbefirmanddifficulttomould(制模),producingbreadsthathavesmallvolumeandpoorexternalappearance.Toomuchandthedoughwillbesoftandalsodifficulttomould;itwillflowintheprover(醒发室)andgivepoor-qualitybread.The`optimum'levelofwaterisreallythemaximumquantitywecangetintothedoughandstillbeabletomouldthepiecesandgivebreadofacceptablequality.Hardnesswillaffectyeast-leavened(发酵)dough.Hardnessinwatercomesmainlyfromcalciumandmagnesiumbicarbonatesandsulfates.Therelativehardnessofwaterisexpressedindegreesofhardness,onedegreeofhardnessbeingtheequivalentof10ppmcalciumcarbonateinwater.Mediumsoftwater(50to100ppm)isconsideredtobethedesiredlevelofhardness.Softwater(0to15ppm)isundesirablebecauseittendstosoftentheglutenandproduceslack,stickydoughsandafinishedproductwithamoreopengrain.Butitissuitableforbiscuitsandnoodles.2.2.3YeastCulturesS.cerevisiae,orbakers’yeastPropertiesandcharacteristicsforbreadmakingGassingpowerFlavordevelopmentEthanolYeastproducesanalcoholicfermentation,whichisananaerobic(厌氧的)conversionofsugarsintocarbondioxidegasandethanol.Thesesugarsincludeboththosethataredirectlyfermentableaswellasthosethatareproducedastheresultofthehydrationofthestarchinflour.YeastculturesCommerciallyavailableYeastcream(酵母乳)Useddirectly,highlyperishable(容易腐烂的)Yeastcake(酵母饼)Yeastcreamthroughfiltrationpressorvac.filterRefrigerationrequired,shelflifeafewweekMetabolicallyactive,quickfermentationDryactiveyeast(活性干酵母)Homebreadmaking,smallbusinessoperationLast6monthsorlongerRequirehydration,notasactive2.2.4食盐Abasicfunctionofsaltinbreaddoughistocontributeflavourbutitalsohasaninhibitingeffectontheformationofglutenduringmixing.2.2.5油脂在面制食品加工中,焙烤食品使用较多的油脂,常用的油脂有植物油、动物油、人造奶油和起酥油等。Compoundbakeryfats(mixturesofoilandsolidfatatagiventemperature)areusedtoimprovethegasretentionofdoughandtherebyincreasevolumeandsoftness;seeFig.Fig.Effectoffatadditiononbreadquality2.2.6糖与糖制品在面制食品加工中,糖是最重要的原料之一,尤其在焙烤食品中糖更是不可缺少的。面制食品中常用的糖制品有蔗糖、转化糖浆、淀粉糖浆、蜂蜜等。Highlevelsofsugarinhibityeastactivityeventhoughitisfermentable.Inmodernbreadmakingsugarscontributetoproductsweetnessandcrustcolour.2.2.7蛋与蛋制品蛋品是生产面包、糕点及蒸包馅料的重要原料,尤其是在蛋糕和高档面包中用量很大。蛋品中用量最多的是鸡蛋、鸭蛋。蛋品的原料类型有带壳鲜蛋、冻蛋、全蛋粉、蛋清粉等。2.2.8其他辅助料及添加剂为了有利于面制食品工艺操作和提高产品质量,面制食品生产中使用的其他辅助料及添加剂有:乳化剂、氧化剂、疏松剂、增稠剂、抗氧化剂、香精香料和食用色素等。2.3.BreadProduce

面包的配方一般用百分比来表示,面粉的用量为100,其它配料占面粉用量的百分之几。如甜面包配方为:面粉100白砂糖18水58酵母1.4食盐0.8鸡蛋12、奶粉5、复合改良剂0.5等。

2.3.1Ingredients2.3.2ModernBreadTechnologyThereareseveraldifferentmethodsofmakingbread.Straightdoughprocess(一次发酵法)

-Homemade,one-batch-at-a-time,notmuchbythebakingindustrySpongeanddoughprocessMostlyused,usingpartiallyconcentratedportionofdough-spongetoferment,andthenmixingwiththeremainingingredientsSpiralmixingandno-timedoughprocesses2.3.2.1straightdoughprocessFlourandrawingredients→mix→fermentation→divide(切块)→ballmould(搓团)→rest(醒发)→mouldandtin(整形)→finalproof(最后醒发)→bake→cool→wrap(包装)2.3.2.2Thespongeanddoughprocess(面包的二次发酵工艺)ThespongeanddoughprocessismostcommonintheUSA.Onlypartoftheingredientsarefermented-thesponge.GeneralflowchartWeighandmixingredientsdoughFermenteddoughPortionedandshapedbakeCoolslicepackfermentationfermentationThespongeanddoughprocess(面包的二次发酵工艺)Theadvantagesofthisprocessarebetterflavouredbread,betterkeepingqualityand,often,betterappearance.

Thespongeanddoughprocesscanbebrokendownintotwoparts:

First,a‘sponge’isformed.Secondisthe‘dough’stage.Theremainderoftheflour,sugarandwater,thefatormargarine(人造黄油),saltand,sometimes,asmallamountofyeast,areaddedtothespongeandthoroughlymixedtogethertomakeasmooth,fairlystiffdough.

2.3.3Keyprocedures

2.3.3.1DoughmixingandprocessingInessence,mixingisthehomogenisationoftheingredients,whereaskneading(揉捏)isthedevelopmentofthedough(gluten)structure.However,bothprocessestakeplacewithinthesamemixingmachineandsocanbeconsideredasoneratherthantwoprocesses.Cell(穴窝)creationduringmixingTheproductionofadefinedcellularstructure(蜂窝结构)inthebakedbreaddependsentirelyonthecreationofgasbubblesinthedoughduringmixingandtheirretentionduringsubsequentprocessing.Aftermixinghasbeencompletedtheonly`new‘gasavailableisthecarbondioxidegeneratedbytheyeastfermentation.Carbondioxidegashashighsolubilityrelativetoothergasesandinbreaddoughcannotformgasbubbles.Astheyeastproducescarbondioxide,thegasgoesintosolutionintheaqueousphasewithinthedoughuntilsaturationisachieved.Thereafter,continuedfermentationcausesdoughexpansionasthegasisretainedwithinitsstructure.2.3.3.2面团发酵面团发酵是面包生产的关键工序。发酵是面包获得气体、实现膨松、增大体积、改善风味的基本手段。酵母的发酵作用是指利用糖(主要是葡萄糖)经过复杂的生物化学反应最终生成C02气体的过程。发酵过程包括有氧呼吸和无氧呼吸。无氧呼吸有利,产生酒精,有醇香味。在面团发酵初期,酵母的有氧呼吸占优势,并迅速繁殖,产生很多新芽孢。随着发酵的进行,无氧呼吸逐渐占优势。越到发酵后期,无氧呼吸越旺盛。

整个发酵过程中以无氧呼吸为主对面包的生产和质量是有利的。

采用二次发酵工艺制作的面包质量较好的原因:在于第一次发酵使酵母繁殖,面团中含有足够的酵母数量增强发酵后劲,通过对一次发酵后面团的搅拌,一方面可使大气泡变成小气泡,另一方面可使面团的热量散失,并使可发酵糖再次和酵母接触,使酵母进行无氧呼吸。

2.3.3.3DoughprocessingThestagesrequiredtoprocessthebulkdoughintobreadmaybedescribedasfollows.1.Dividing2.Roundingandfirstmoulding3.Intermediateorfirstproving4.Finalmoulding1.DividingThebulkdoughisdividedtogeneratetheshapeandsizeofproductrequired.2.RoundingandfirstmouldingModificationoftheshapeofthedivideddoughpieceiscommon.Mechanicalmouldingsubjectsthedoughtostressesandstrainsandmayleadtodamagetotheexistinggasbubblestructurepresent.3IntermediateorfirstprovingAperiodofrestbetweentheworkcarriedoutbydividingandroundingandbeforefinalshapingmaybeused.Thelengthoftimechosenforthisprocessisrelatedtothedoughrheologyrequiredforfinalmoulding.Changesoccurindoughrheologyasitrests,thelongerthatitreststhegreaterwillbethechanges.Fig.4Effectoffirstproofonbreadquality.4FinalmouldingThebasicfunctionsofthisstagearetoshapethedoughtofittheproductconceptandtore-orientatethecellstructure.2.3.3.4ProvingandbakingProvingisthenamegiventothedoughrestingperiod,afterthemouldedpieceshavebeenputintotinsorplacedintrays,duringwhichfermentationcontinuesinacontrolledatmosphere,typically40-45℃and85%relativehumidity.Fig.CTX-rayimagesofdoughduringproof(notetheimageresolutionofthistechniqueonlyrevealsbubblesofabout1mmorlarger).Yeastfeedsonthesugarstoproducecarbondioxideandalcohol.Thecarbondioxidediffusesintothegasbubblesinthedough,causingthemtogrowandthedoughtoexpand.Progressivelythesizeofthegasbubblesincreases.bakingAfterproofthedoughmustbeheat-set,thatisbaked.Bakingtemperatureswillvaryfromoventoovenandwithproduct.Typicallyoventemperatureslieintheregionof180-220℃,15-50min.Gelatinizationofthestarchstartsatabout60℃andinitiallythestarchgranulesabsorbanyfreewaterinthedough.Alpha-amylaseactivityconvertsthestarchintodextrinsandthensugars.Aswaterisdrivenoffandthecrustacquiresitscharacteristiccrispnessandcolour,flavourandaromadevelopfromtheMaillardreactions,whichstartattemperaturesabove115℃.2.4饼干(Biscuits)的生产GB/T20980-2007是以小麦粉(可添加糯米粉、淀粉等)为主要原料,加入(或不加入)糖、油脂及其他原料,经调粉(或调浆)、成型、烘烤(或煎烤)等工艺制成的口感酥松或松脆的食品。2.4.1分类按加工工艺分为13类1.塑性饼干shortbiscuit2.韧性饼干semihardbiscuit3.发酵饼干fermentedbiscuit4.压缩饼干compressedbiscuit5.曲奇饼干cookie2.4.1分类6.夹心饼干sandwichedbiscuit7.威化饼干wafer8.蛋圆饼干macaroon9.蛋卷eggroll10.煎饼crispfilm11.装饰饼干decorationbiscuit12.水泡饼干spongebiscuit2.4.2BISCUITPRODUCTIONPROCESSES与面包相比,饼干在原辅料上的异同点:相同点二者在原辅料的种类上相同的方面是,面粉、糖、蛋品相异点①使用的添加剂不同,饼干需添加疏松剂、抗氧化剂

I)疏松剂:NaHCO3、NH4HCO3(食用级)、酵母对于酥性、甜酥性、韧性饼干来说,不需发酵;对于苏打饼干来说,则要发酵。II)抗氧化剂:因饼干的用油量大,所以需添加抗氧化剂

有BHA(丁基羟基茴香醚)BHT(丁基羟基甲苯)其用量为0.002~0.004%②面粉质量要求不同一般饼干的生产(粗、韧、酥、甜酥):含面筋质量低(20~26%)、蛋白质8~10%,面团的弹性中等或较差,延伸性较大。发酵饼干(苏打饼干):湿面筋的含量高(30%左右),蛋白质13~14%,面团的弹性及延伸性要求中等或较好。③生产的工艺有差异一般的饼干不需发酵;苏打饼干需发酵。④油脂用量多以人造奶油、起酥油为好。

⑤酥性面团shortpastrydough与韧性面团elasticdough之分酥性面团——和面时未使面筋充分形成的面团,面团结构松散韧性面团——使面筋充分形成的面团,韧性、弹性较好⑥香精、香料、色素多2.4.2饼干的生产工艺流程饼干生产的基本工艺为:原辅料预处理→面团调制→辊轧→成型→焙烤→喷油一冷却一包装。面团调制是将生产饼干的各种原辅料混合成具有某种特性面团的过程。饼干生产中面团调制是最关键的一道工序。饼干面团调制过程中,面筋蛋白并没有完全形成面筋,不同的饼干品种,面筋形成量是不同的,阻止面筋形成的措施也不一样。酥性面团的调制

酥性面团是用来生产酥性饼干和甜酥饼干的面团。要求面团有较大的可塑性和有限的黏弹性,面团不粘轧辊和模具,饼干坯应有较好的花纹,焙烤时有一定的胀发率而又不收缩变形。要达到以上要求,必须严格控制面

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