2024年外国语言学及应用语言学考点总结

LangueandParoleLangueisthesystemofalanguage,thelanguageasasystemofforms,whereasparoleisactualspeech,thespeechactsthataremadepossiblebythesystemofthelanguage.That`sistosay,langueisthesocialproductwhoseexistencepermitstheindividualtoexercisehislinguisticfaculty;parole,ontheotherhand,isthe“executivesideoflanguage”.ComparativeLinguisticsAbranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestwoormorelanguagesinordertocomparetheirstructuresandtoshowwhethertheyaresimilarordifferent.Comparativelinguisticsisusedinthestudyoflanguagestypesandincomparativehistoricallinguistics.Itisalsousedbysomeappliedlinguistsforestablishingdifferencesbetweenthelearner’snativelanguageandthetargetlanguageintheareasofsyntax,vocabulary,andsoundsystems.3.Empiricism（經验主义）Anapproachtopsychologywhichstatesthatthedevelopmentoftheorymustberelatedtoobservablefactsandexperiments,orwhichstatesthatallhumanknowledgecomesfromexperience.4.Rationalism（理性主义）ItisanapproachtophilosophyproposedbyChomskyinthe1960s,whichstatesthattheknowledgeisbasedonreasoningratherthanonexperienceofsenses.Inthissense,itisopposedtoempiricism.5.Behaviorism（行為主义）Atheoryofpsychologywhichstatesthathumanandanimalbehaviorcanbestudiedonlyintermsofphysicalprocesses,withoutreferencetomind.Itledtotheoriesoflearningwhichexplainedhowanexternalevent(astimulus)causedachangeinthebehaviorofanindividual(aresponse),basedonahistoryofreinforcement.6.Positivism(实证主义)aphilosophicalmovementthatbeganintheearly19thcentury,characterizedbyanemphasisonthescientificmethodastheonlysourceofknowledgeandadesiretorebuildsocietyonthebasisof“positive”knowledge..7Mentalism（心智主义）Itisthetheorythatahumanbeingpossessesamindwhichhasconsciousness,ideas,etc.,andthatthemindcaninfluencethebehaviorofthebody.8.Morpheme(語素)Itreferstothesmallestmeaningfulunitinalanguage.Amorphemecannotbedividedwithoutalteringordestroyingitsmeaning.9.Deductionandinduction(演绎和归纳)Reasoningbydeductionproceedsfromageneralizationtoparticularfactswhichsupportit,whereasreasoningbyinductioninvolvesmovingfromparticularfactstogeneralizationsaboutthem.10.Linguisticrelativity（語言相對论）Whorfbelievedthatspeakersofdifferentlanguagesperceiveandexperiencetheworlddifferently,relativetotheirlinguisticbackground,hencethenotionoflinguisticrelativity.11.Linguisticdeterminism（語言决定论）AtheoryputforwardbytheAmericananthropologicallinguistsSapirandWhorf,whichstatesthatthewaypeopleviewtheworldisdeterminedbythestructureoftheirnativelanguage.12.Discourseanalysis(话語分析)Thestudyofhowsentencesinspokenandwrittenlanguageformlargermeaningfulunitssuchasparagraphs,conversations,interviews,etc.13.Semiology/Semiotics（符号學）1)thetheoryofsigns.2)theanalysisofsystemsusingsignsorsignalsforthepurposeofcommunication.Themostimportantsemioticsystemishumanlanguage,butthereareothersystems,e.g.signlanguage,trafficsignals.14.Descriptivelinguistics（描写語言學）Descriptivelinguisticsdescribeshowalanguageisactuallyspokenand/orwritten,anddoesnotstateorprescribehowitoughttobespokenorwritten.15.Synchronicanddiachroniclinguistics（共時和历史措施）Diachroniclinguisticsisanapproachtolinguisticswhichstudieshowalanguagechangesoveraperiodoftime,forexamplethechangeinthesoundsystemofEnglishfromEarlyEnglishtoModernEnglish.Diachroniclinguisticshasbeencontrastedwithsynchroniclinguisticswhichisthestudyofalanguagesystematoneparticularpointintime,forexamplethesoundsystemofModernBritishEnglish.16.SynchronicanddiachroniclinguisticsDiachroniclinguisticsisanapproachtolinguisticswhichstudieshowalanguagechangesoveraperiodoftime,forexmplethechangeinthesoundsystemofEnglishfromEarlyEnglishtoModernEnglish.Diachroniclinguisticshasbeencontrastedwithsynchroniclinguisticswhichisthestudyofalanguagesystematoneparticularpointintime,forexamplethesoundsystemofModernBritishEnglish.TheneedfordiachronicandsynchronicdescriptionstobekeptapartwasemphasizedbytheswisslinguistSaussure.17.SpeechactAnutteranceasafunctionalunitincommunication.Inspeechacttheory,utteranceshavetwokindsofmeaning:propositionalmeaning(alsoknownaslocutionarymeaning).Thisisthebasicliteralmeaningoftheutterancewhichisconveyedbytheparticularwordsandstructureswhichtheutterancecontains.Illocutionarymeaning(alsoknownasillocutionaryforce).Thisistheeffecttheutteranceorwrittentexthasonthereaderorlistener.Forexample,in“Iamthirsty”thepropositionalmeaningiswhattheutterancesaysaboutthespeaker’sphysicalstate.Theillocutionaryforceistheeffectthespeakerwantstheutterancetohaveonthelistener.Itmaybeintendedasarequestforsomethingtodrink.Aspeechactisasentenceorutterancewhichhasbothpropositionalmeaningandillocutionaryforce..Therearemanydifferentkindsofspeechacts,suchasrequests,orders,commands,complaints,promises.Aspeechactwhichisperformedindirectlyissometimesknownasanindirectspeechact,suchasthespeechactofrequestingabove.Indirectspeechactsareoftenfelttobemorepolitewaysofperformingcertainkindsofspeechact,suchasrequestsandrefusals.18.Positivismaphilosophicalmovementthatbeganintheearly19thcentury,characterizedbyanemphasisonthescientificmethodastheonlysourceofknowledgeandadesiretorebuildsocietyonthebasisof“positive”knowledge.Asavariationofempiricism,amongthebasicideasofpositivismaretheideathattheworldisorderly,thatallnaturalphenomenahavenaturalcauses,andthatnothingisself-evident,butthelawsofnaturecanbediscoveredthroughexperimentation.Althoughfewpeoplenowadayssubscribetoallofthesebeliefs,somedegreeofpositivismcharacterizesmost“scientific”approachestounderstandingallphenomena,includinglanguagelearning.Logicalpositivismisaspecifictypeofpositivismthatrejectsasmeaninglessallstatementsthatcannotbeempiricallyverified.19.Tagmemics(tagmemics)thebasicunitofgrammaticalanalysis.Atagmemeisaunitinwhichthereisarelationshipbetweenthegrammaticalfunction,forinstancethefunctionofSubject,ObjectorPredicate,andaclassoffillers.Forexample,inthesentence:ThebabybitAnthea.ThesubjecttagmemeisfilledbytheNounPhrase(thebaby),thepredicatetagmemeisfilledbytheTransitiveVerb(bit)initspasttenseform,andtheobjecttagmemeisfilledbythepropernoun(Anthea).20.Phoneticsthestudyofspeechsounds.Therearethreemainareasofphonetics:1)Articulatoryphoneticsdealswiththewayinwhichspeechsoundsareproduced.Soundsareusuallyclassifiedaccordingtothepositionofthelipsandthetongue,howfaropenthemouthis,whetherornotthevocalcordsarevibrating,etc.2)Acousticphoneticsdealswiththetransmissionofspeechsoundsthroughtheair.Whenaspeechsoundisproduceditcausesminorairdisturbances(soundwave).Variousinstrumentsareusedtomeasurethecharacteristicsofthesesoundwaves.Auditoryphoneticsdealswithhowspeechsoundsareperceivedbythelisteners.21.Phonology1)anothertermforphonemics.2)(forsomelinguists)acovertermforbothphoneticsandphonemics.3)Theestablishmentanddescriptionofthedistinctivesoundunitsofalanguage(phonemes)bymeansofdistinctivefeaturesEachphonemeisconsideredasconsistingofagroupofthesefeaturesanddifferinginatleastonefeaturefromtheotherphonemes.22.BehaviorismAtheoryofpsychologywhichstatesthathumanandanimalbehaviorcanandshouldbestudiedonlyintermsofphysicalprocesses,withoutreferencetomind.Itledtotheoriesoflearningwhichexplainedhowanexternalevent(astimulus)causedachangeinthebehaviorofanindividual(aresponse),basedonahistoryofreinforcement.BehaviorismwasusedbypsychologistslikeSkinner,Osgood,andStaatstoexplainfirstlanguagelearning,buttheseexplanationswererejectedbyadherentsofgenerativegrammarandmanyothers.23.UniversalGrammarAtheorywhichclaimstoaccountforthegramaticalcompetenceofeveryadultnomatterwhatlanguageheorshespeaks.Itclaimsthateveryspeakerknowsasetofprincipleswhichapplytoalllanguagesandalsoasetofparametersthatcanvaryfromonelanguagetoanother,butonlywithincertainlimits.ThetheorywasproposedbyChomskyandhasbeenstatedmorespecificallyinhismodelofGovernmentandBindingTheory.AccordingtoUGtheory,acquiringalanguagemeansapplyingtheprinciplesofUGgrammartoaparticularlanguage,e.g.English,FrenchorGerman,andlearningwhichvalueisappropriateforeachparameter.Forexample,oneoftheprinciplesofUGisstructuredependency.Itmeansthataknowledgeoflanguagereliesonknowingstructuralrelationshipsinasentenceratherthanlookingatitasasequenceofwords.1.Structuralism/Structural(ist)linguisticsAnapproachtolinguisticswhichstressestheimportanceoflanguageasasystemandwhichinvestigatestheplacethatlinguisticunitssuchassounds,words,sentenceshavewithinthissystem.Structurallinguists,forexample,studiedthedistributionofsoundswithinthewordsofalanguage;thatis,whethercertainsoundsappearonlyatthebeginningofwordsoralsointhemiddleorattheend.Theydefinedsomesoundsinalanguageasdistinctiveandusedintheidentificationofwords(seephoneme),andsomeasvariants(seeallophone).Similarstudiesofdistributionandclassificationwerecarriedoutinmorphologyandsyntax.Initswidestsense,thetermhasbeenusedforvariousgroupsoflinguists,includingthoseofthePragueSchool,butmostoftenitisusedtorefertoagroupofAmericanlinguistssuchasBloomfieldandFries,whopublishedmainlyinthe1930sto1950s.Theworkoftheselinguistswasbasedonthetheoryofbehavirismandhadaconsiderableinfluenceonsomelanguageteachingmethods(seeAudiolingualmethod).2.Innatenesshypothesis(天赋假說)Thetheorystatesthathumanknowledgedevelopsfromstructures,processes,and“ideas”whichareinthemindatbirth(i.e.areinnate),ratherthanfromtheenvironment,andthatthereareresponsibleforthebasicstructureoflanguageandhowitislearned.Thishypothesishasbeenusedtoexplainhowchildrenareabletolearnlanguage.Theinnatenesshypothesiscontrastswiththebeliefthatallhumanknowledgecomesfromexperience.

3.AmericanStructuralismAmericanStructuralismisabranchofsynchroniclinguistics,andthepioneerscholarswhotookaninterestinlinguisticsinAmericawereanthropologists.ItdevelopedinaverydifferentstylefromthatofEuropeundertheleadershipoftheanthropologistFranzBoas.DescriptiveinlanguagetheoriesischaracteristicofAmerica.AndanotherfeatureofAmericanlinguisticsisitsinsistenceonbeingscientific.Firstly,structuralgrammardescribeseverythingthatisfoundinalanguageinsteadoflayingdownrules.However,itsaimisconfinedtothedescriptionoflanguages,withoutexplainingwhylanguageoperatesthewayitdoes.Secondly,structuralgrammarisempirical,aimingatobjectivityinthesensethatalldefinitionsandstatementsshouldbeverifiableorrefutable.However,ithasproducedalmostnocompletegrammarscomparabletoanycomprehensivetraditionalgrammars.Thirdly,structuralgrammarexaminesalllanguages,recognizinganddoingjusticetotheuniquenessofeachlanguage.Butitdoesnotgiveanadequatetreatmentofmeaning.Lastly,structuralgrammardescribeseventhesmallestcontraststhatunderlieanyconstructionoruseofalanguage,notonlythosediscoverableinsomeparticularuse.ThedevelopmentofAmericanStructuralismcanberoughlyclassifiedinto3stagesBoasandSapirperiod(1911-1932)Bloomfieldianperiod(1933-1950)Post-Bloomfieldianperiod(1952-1956)Boas’sviewonlanguage:Boasheldthatthereisnoidealtypeorformoflanguage.Hewasstronglyopposedtotheviewthatlanguageisthesoulofarace,andheprovedthatthestructureandformofalanguagehasnotingtodowiththeevolutionofaraceandthedevelopmentofaculture.Thereareonlydifferencesinlanguagestructure,whilethereisnodifferencebetweenlanguagesintermsofbeingmoreorlessreasonableoradvanced.Boasexpoundedthatwhatwouldsound“primitive”ofalanguageisinfactneverprimitiveatall.Boas’smethodology:Boasnoticedthateverylanguagehasitsownsystemofsoundsandhealsofoundthateverylanguagehasitsowngrammaticalsystem.Boassaidthattheimportanttaskforlinguistsistodiscover,foreachlanguageunderstudy,itsownparticulargrammaticalstructure&todevelopdescriptivecategoriesappropriatetoit.Boas’contribution:Startingfromananthropologicalviewinstudyinglinguistics,Boasregardedlinguisticsaspartofanthropologyandfailedtoestablishlinguisticsasanindependentbranchofscience.Buthisbasictheory,hisobservation,andhisdescriptivemethodspavedthewayforAmericandescriptivelinguisticsandinfluencedgenerationsofscholars.Althoughhedidnotestablishasetofdescriptivemethods,hisviewondescribingalienlanguagesplayedaveryimportantpartintheformationofAmericandescriptivelinguistics.Sapir:(1)Hestartedfromananthropologicalviewpointtodescribethenatureoflanguage,withhismainfocusontypology.Hedefineslanguageas“apurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofasystemofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.”(2)Indiscussingbetweenspeechandmeaning,Sapirholdsthattheassociationofspeechandmeaningisarelationthatmaybe,butneednotbe,present.(3)Indiscussingtherelationbetweenlanguageandthought,Sapirholdsthattheyarenottobeconsideredthesame.Languageisthemeans,andthoughtistheendproduct.Withoutlanguage,thoughtisimpossible.(4)Healsonoticedtheuniversalfeatureoflanguage,hesaysthatallhumanracesandtribes,nomatterhowbarbaricorunderdeveloped,havetheirownlanguages.Bloomfield:HewastheprinciplerepresentativeofAmericandescriptivelinguistics.Hismaincontributiontolinguisticsishisphilosophicallysophisticatedemphasisonmakingitascience.BloomfielddevelopedBoas’stheoryundertheinfluenceofNeogrammariansandSaussure.TheonlydifferenceisthatBloomfieldtriedtoaccountfortheproductionandinterpretationofspeechwiththe“stimulus-response”theoryundertheinfluenceoftheprevailingbehavioristpsychologyofthetime.Bloomfield’sLanguagehasbeenacclaimedasaclassicinmodernlinguisticsandwasonceheldtobethemodelofscientificmethodologyandthegreatestworkinlinguisticsonbothsidesofAtlanticinthe20thcentury.BloomfieldissuchalandmarkfigureinthehistoryofAmericanlinguisticsthattheperiodbetween1933and1950isknownastheBloomfieldianage,inwhichAmericandescriptivelinguisticsformallycameintobeingandreacheditsprimedevelopment.4.ComparisonbetweenTGgrammarandtheStructuralGrammarTGdiffersfromthestructuregrammarinanumberofways:rationalism,innateness,deductivemethodology,emphasisoninterpretation,formalization,emphasisonlinguisticcompetence,stronggenerativepowers&emphasisonlinguisticuniversals.Bloomfielddefinedlanguageasasetofutterancesandasetof“lexicalandgrammaticalhabits”whileChomskydefinedasasetofrulesorprinciples.Twohavedifferentaimsinlinguistics:forstructuralism,itistodescribeoneorasetoflanguages;forChomsky,itistoproduceagenerativegrammarwhichcapturesthetacitknowledgeofthenativespeakerofhislanguage.DifferenttypesofdatainanalysisThestructuralismsmakeuseofthenaturallyoccurringutterances,Chomskyandhisfollowersareinterestedinanydatathatcanrevealthenativespeaker’stacitknowledge.DifferentmethodsBloomfield--inductiveChomsky---(hypothesis-deductive)DifferentinviewinglanguagelearningBloomfield--empiricisminphilosophyandbehaviorisminpsychologyChomsky----rationalisminphilosophyandmentalisminpsychology5、Stimulus—ResponsetheoryAlsoS—RtheoryAlearningtheoryassociatedparticularlywiththeAmericanpsychologistB.F.Skinner(1904-1990),whichdescribeslearningastheformationofassociationsbetweenresponses.Astimulusisthatwhichproducesachangeorreactioninanindividualororganism.Aresponseisthebehaviorwhichisproducedasareactiontoastimulus.Reinforcementisastimuluswhichfollowstheoccurrenceofaresponseandaffectstheprobabilityofthatresponseoccurringornotoccurringagain.Reinforcementwhichincreasesthelikelihoodofaresponseisknownaspositivereinforcement.Reinforcementwhichdecreasesthelikelihoodofaresponseisknownasnegativereinforcement.Ifnoreinforcementisassociatedwitharesponsetheresponsemayeventuallydisappear.Thisisknownasextinction.Ifaresponseisproducedtosimilarstimuliwithwhichitwasnotoriginallyassociatedthisisknownas“stimulusgeneralization”.Learningtodistinguishdifferentkindsofstimulusisknownasdiscrimination.ThereareseveralS—Rtheorieswhichcontainthesegeneralprinciplesorvariationsofthem,andtheyhavebeenusedinstudiesofverballearningandlanguagelearning.6.Empiricismanapproachtopsychologywhichstatesthatthedevelopmentoftheorymustberelatedtoobservablefactsandexpeiments(seeBehaviorism),orwhichstatesthatallhumanknowledgecomesfromexperience.Empiricismcontrastswiththeviewthatmanyformsofhumanknowledgearein-bornorinnate(seeInnatisthypothesis).7.Transformational-generativeGrammarAlsotransformationalgrammar,TGgrammar,generative-transformationalgrammar,generativetransformationaltheoryAtheoryofgrammarwhichwasproposedbytheAmericanlinguistChomskyin1957.Ithassincebeendevelopedbyhimandmanyotherlinguists.Chomskyattemptedtoprovideamodelforthedescriptionofalllanguages.Atransformationalgenerativegrammartriestoshow,withasystemofrules,theknowledgewhichanativespeakerofalanguageusesinforminggrammaticalsentences.Chomskyhaschangedhistheoryovertheyears.Themostwell-knownversionwaspublishedinhisbookAspectsoftheTheoryofSyntaxin1965.ItisoftenreferredtoastheAspectsModelorStandardTheory.Thismodelconsistsoffourmainparts:thebasecomponent,whichproducesorgeneratesbasicsyntacticstructurescalleddeepstructures;2)thetransformationalcomponent,whichchangesortransformsthesebasicstructuresintosentencescalledsurfacestructures;3)thephonologicalcomponent,whichgivessentencesaphoneticrepresentationsothattheycanbepronounced;4)thesemanticcomponent,whichdealswiththemeaningofsentences.8.Saussure’sViewsofLanguageandhisContributionsSaussure’sviewofoflanguangeasasystemofarbitrarysignsSaussureoccupiessuchanimportantplaceinthehistoryoflinguisticsthatheheisoftendescribedas“fatherofmodernlinguistics”.ThesignificanceoftherichlegacySaussureleftusisprobablybeyondwhatwemayrealizeatpresent.Saussure’schiefcontributionsareasfollows:Hehelpedtosetthestudyofhumanbehavioronanewfooting(basis).Saussuresawthatthestudyofhumanbehaviormissesitsbestopportunitiesifittriestotracethehistoricalcausesofindividualevents.Instead,itmustfocusprimarilyonthefunctionswhicheventshavewithinageneralsocialframework,anditmusttreatsocialfactsaspartofasystemofconventions(规约系统)andvalues.2)Hehelpedtopromotesemiology(符号學).Byhismethodologicalexampleandbyvariouspropheticsuggestions,Saussurehelpedtopromotesemiology,thegeneralscienceofsignsandsystemofsigns,andstructuralism,whichhasbeenanimportanttrendincontemporaryanthropologyandliterarycriticismaswellasinlinguistics.3)HeclarrifiedtheformalstrategiesofModernistthought.Inhismethodologicalremarksandgeneralapproachtolanguage,SaussuregaveaclearexpressionofwhatwemightcalltheformalstrategiesofModenistthought:thewaysinwhichscientists,philosophers,artists,andwritersworkingintheearlypartofthe20thcenturytriedtoknowaboutacomplexandchaoticuniverse.4)Heattachedimportancetothestudyoftheintimaterelationbetweenlanguageandhumanmind(心智).Saussure’streatmentoflanguagefocusesonproblemswhicharecentraltonewwaysofthinkingaboutmanandespeciallyabouttheintimaterelationbetweenlanguageandthehumanmind.Inaword.Saussure’scontributionsareactuallyinmanyfields:linguistics,generalsocialsciences,semioticsandstructuralism,modernistthoughtandourconceptionofman.Allthesemakehimaseminalfigureinmodernintellectualhistory.9.Bloomfield’sViewsofLanguageandContributionsBloomfield’slanguage(1933)hasbeenacclaimedasaclassicinmodernlinguisticsandwasonceheldtobethemodelofscientificmethodologyandthegreatestworkinlinguisticsonbothsidesoftheAtlanticinthe20thcentury.Themainpointsinhisworkare(1)behavioristviewoflanguage;(2)theproblemofspeechcommunity;(3)phonologicalfeaturesandtypology;(4)grammaticalunits.HeistheprincipalrepresentativeofAmericandescriptivelinguisticsandisreadbymanymorelinguiststoday.Bloomfieldissuchalandmarkfigure(標志性人物)inthehistoryofAmericanlinguisticsthattheperiodbetween1933and1950isknownastheBloomfieldianAge,inwhichAmericandescriptivelinguisticsformallycameintobeingandreacheditsprimedevelopment.Bloomfield’smaincontributiontolinguisticsishisphilosophicallysophisticatedemphasisonmakingitascience.HewasoneofthechieffoundersoftheLinguisticsSocietyofAmericain1924.Heisalsothefounderofstructuralistlinguisticsandtrainedagenerationoflinguists.TheonlydifferenceisthatBloomfieldtriedtoaccountfortheproductionandinterpretationofspeechwiththe“stimulus-response”theoryundertheinfluenceoftheprevailingbehavioristpsychologyofthetime.10.Halliday`smetafunctions(3aspects):Sincetheadult’slanguageismorecomplexandhastoservemanyfunctions,theoriginalfunctionalrangeofthechild’slanguageisgraduallyreducedtoasetofhighlycodedandabstractfunctions,whicharemetafunctions:theideational,theinterpersonal,andthetextualfunctions.Theideationalfunctionistoconveynewinformationtocommunicateacontentthatisunknowntothehearer.Itmainlyconsistsof“transitivity”and“voice”.Forexample,Johnbuiltanewhousecanbeanalysedasaconfigurationofthefunctions（功能配置）:Actor:JohnProcess:Material:creation:builtGoal:affected:anewhouseHerethe“Actor”,“Process”,“Goal”,andtheirsubcategoriesreflectourunderstandingofphenomenathatcomewithinourexperienceTheinterpersonalfunctionembodiesallusesoflanguagetoexpre