新编MPA英语阅读教程

新编MPA英语

阅读教程

Unit1

DefiningPublicAdministration

TextA

PublicAdministration

1.Theoccupationalsector,enterprises,andactivitieshavingto

dowiththeformulationandimplementationofpolicyof

governmentalandotherpublicprogramsandthemanagementof

organizationsandactivitiesinvolved.2.Theacademicfield

concernedwiththestudyof,improvementof,andtrainingforthe

activitiesmentionedin1.

Publicadministrationreferstotwodistinguishablebutclosely

relatedactivities:(1)aprofessionalpractice(vocation,occupation,

fieldofactivity),and(2)anacademicfieldaswellastotrain

individualsforthatpractice.Thesimplemeaningofthetermisquite

direct:itrefersontheonehandtotheadministrationor

managementofmatterswhichhaveprincipallytodowiththe

society,polity,anditssubpartswhicharenotessentiallyprivate,

familial,commercial,orindividualistic,andontheotherhandtothe

disciplinedstudyofsuchmatters.Inthissimplestmeaning,public

administrationhastodowithmanagingtherealmofgovernmental

andotherpublicactivities.Hiis6mR®definitiQiiconveys—the

essenceofpublicadmini^tratipnandprobablycoversthevast

majorityofactivitiesandconcernsQfcontemporarypuW

administration.

Suchasimpleview,though,needsmodificationtoaccountfor

atleasttwoimportantconsiderations:Hrst,itmustberecognized

thatprofessionalmanagementofthepublic'saffairsinvolvesnot

onlymanagementinthenarrowestsense(keepingthebooks,

handlingpersonneldecisions,implementingdecisionswhichhave

beenmadeelsewhereinthepolitico-socio-economicsystems,etc.),

butalsosignificantlyinvolvestheplanning,formulating,modifying,

andurgingofgoalsandpurposesofmuchofpublicaffairs.Second,

itmustberecognizedthatsomemattersofpublicadministrationare

handledinwayswhicharenotpurelyprivatebutalsoarenot

preciselygovernment.

Thefirstconsideration—thatpublicadministrationisinvolvedin

thesubstanceofpolicyaswellastheimplementationofpolicy

decisions—isfrequentlyalludedtowithtermssuchasthedemiseof

thepolitics-administrationdichotomy,theimpossibilityofvalue-free

publicadministration,andtheneedforproactivitybypublic

administrators.Thesetermsreflectthewidespread,thoughnot

universal,belieforallegationthatitisnolonger,ifeveritwas,

defensibletointerpretpublicadministrationassolelyinvolvedin

technicallyobjectivesolutionsorintheneutralimplementationof

decisionsmadebynonadministrativepartsofthepoliticalsystem

(e.g.,partisanleadership;electoralprocesses;partyprocesses;

partisanbargaining;andparliamentary,legislative,andjudicial

institutions).IbisbelieLandje&edJindeiistandingshave」edtQ

signifjcanipublic一administratiQrLateniiQnJtQ—PQlicv一andRQ115y

process.Somehavefeltaneedforarubricwhichemphasizessuch

apolicyfocusandwhichmightalsoencompassorindicate

receptivitytoareasofstudieswhicharecloselyrelated(e.g.,

planning,urbanaffairs,economicanalysis,publicpolicyanalysis),

andtermssuchaspublicaffairsaresometimesusedforthis

purpose.IngeneiaL上hQughjPubUcadminisiratiQiistjlLfunctLQns

astheumbrellatermthroughouttheworld,thoughitmustbe

realizedthatthetermimpliesabroaderrangeofconcernsand

actMtiea—dhan-Jtie—naiTQW一jujeaning_juaaagement—a

administrationmayconvey.

Thesecondconsideration—thatnotallpublicadministration

occursinandthroughgovernmentalorganizations—alsohasledto

abroadeningofthemeaningofpublicadministration.Atvarious

timesinthepastofpublicadministrationithasseemedthatits

essenceandactivitiescouldbeidentifiedbyreferringtononmarket

approachestosocialpurposes,butthisperspectivehasbeen

mitigatedbytherecognitionthatpublicprogramsandbenefits

couldbedevelopedthroughandprovidedwithsomemarket

characteristics.Thustherehavebeendevelopmentssuchas

governmentalorquasi-governmentalactivitieswhichcompetewith

privatesectoractivitiesorprovidebenefitsthroughuseofaprice

mechanism;sometimeswater,utilities,sewers,healthcare,

education,andotherbenefitsareprovidedinthisway.Thereare

alsodevicessuchaspubliccorporations,quasi-publiccorporations,

public-privatecooperativeenterprises,andgovernmentcontractual

arrangementswithnongovernmentalorganizationstoprovide

certainbenefitsorperformcertainfunctions.Indeed,evenforlarge

partsoftheworldwheretheprivate-publicdistinctionhasnotbeen

asprevalentorobviousasotherplaces(forexample,wherethe

economyisessentiallydirectedornonmarket),themovement

towardmarketormarketlikemechanismsfortheprovisionofpublic

goodsisincreasinglyamatterofrhetoric,planning,oraction.

Whentheseconsiderationsaretakenintoaccount,public

administrationisprobablybestdefinedasthepracticeandstudyof

theprofessionalformulationandinfluenceofpublicpolicyandthe

implementationofsuchpolicyonaregularandorganizedbasison

behalfofthepublicinterestofasocietyitscivicsubparts,andits

citizenry.

DevelopmentoftheField

Itisusualtodatethecontemporarysocialscientificawareness

ofbureaucracy(atermwhichcanincludebothprivate,or"business"

administrationandpublicadministration)withtheworkofthe

GermansocialscientistMaxWeber(1864-1920).Suchdating,

though,ismoreamatterofconvenienceorrecognitionofimportant

scholarlyinfluencethanofhistoricalaccuracy.

IntheUnitedStates,itisusualtocreditthereformismofthe

PopulistandProgressiveeraofpolitics(about1880-1920)and

especiallyWoodrowWilson'sacademicarticle"TheStudyof

Administration"(inthePoliticalScienceQuarterlyin1887)forthe

systematicandself-consciousdevelopmentofthefieldofpublic

administration.LUsjJsuaLalsQJtQJxtentifvtheEarlyyearsj2tLiS

publicadministrationwithscientificmanagement,aschoolof

thoughtlargelyattributedtoFrederickWinslowTaylor(1856-1915)

whichemphasizedataskanalysisandefficiencyapproachto

management;andwiththesubsequenthumanrelationsmovement,

whichemphasizedthehumanandsocialaspectsofwork

environmentsandmotivationssomewhatincontradistinctiontothe

scientificmanagementmovement.Bothoftheselattermovements

hadtheiroriginsinindustrialandbusinessmanagement,butwere

veryinfluentialonpublicadministrationintheUnitedStatesand

aroundtheworld.TheperiodofU.S.historybetweentheGreat

DepressionandtheWorldWarII(about1929-1945)iscommonly

heldtorepresentU.S.publicadministrationinaself-confident

—thoughsomealsosaynaive-phase;thisperiodisfrequently

referredtointheUnitedStatesandelsewhereastheperiodof

classicalpublicadministrationororthodoxpublicadministration.

ThedynamicsoftheColdWarcompetitionbetweentheUnited

StatesandWesternalliesandtheUSSRanditsallies,andthe

manifestationofthiscompetitioninvariousformsoftechnical

assistance,aidineconomicdevelopment,andadministrative

assistancehadanimpactuponpublicadministration.Inthe1960s

and1970s,muchoftheworldofscienceandtechnologycame

underattack.IntheUnitedStates,thesedecadesandtheir

challengeshavecometobeinterpretedagainstthebackdropofthe

civilrightsmovement(andrelatedmovementssuchasfeminism),

VietnamWaractivism,the"newleft,"anti-institutionalism,and

particularmanifestationsofyouthrebellion.Otherpartsoftheworld

alsoexperiencedsimilarmovements,frequentlyexacerbatedby

issuesofneocolonialism,nationalism,anti-institutionalism,

environmentalism,anti-technologism,andgeneralcritiquesof

scientificandtechnologicalperspectivesand,indeed,theentiretyof

"modernity."Allofthesemattershadeffectsuponpolitics,thesocial

sciences,andpublicadministration.InUnitedStatesandelsewhere,

manyofthesedevelopmentswereaccompaniedbysignificant

critiquesofpublicadministration.Onemanifestationofthiswasa

dialogueabouttheneedforfundamentalrethinkinginpublic

administration(andforsome,theneedfora“newpublic

administration").InJJielasL_8upleQLdecades,」hisJiacLbeen

augmentedbytremendoustechnologicaldevelopments(e.g.,in

computerapplicationsandincommunicationsdevelopments)on

thepnehand,andevermpresophisticatedphilosophicaland

methodologicalinterpretationsassertingthatwearQtranscending

"modernity“inwayswhichcallmuchofourquestionontheother

hand.Atthepresenttinie，publicadministrationworldwideisin

creativetensionandundergoingrapidchangeandattemptsat

reconceptualization.Whattheeffectsofallthiswillbeovertime,or

whatthenextdevelopmentalstagewillbe,isunclearbutgenerally

appearstohaveanenergizingeffectuponthefield.

ConfigurationoftheField

Publicadministrationissometimestreatedasthoughitisone

ofthesocialsciences,adisciplineinsomesense.Asthenumberof

programsofferingdoctoraldegreesinthefieldhasincreased,this

interpretationhasgainedstrength.

IntheUnitedStates,itisrelativelyunusualforpublic

administrationtobeafree-standingdegreeprogramatthe

baccalaureatelevel(thoughtherearesomewell-establishedand

prestigiousprogramsofthissort—especiallyinschoolsofpublic

affairs,schoolsofmanagement,orschoolsofpublicadministration

—andthisapproachmaybeontheincrease).Themoretraditional

andstillusualpatternisforbaccalaureateeducationinpublic

administrationtobeamajororminorspecializationwithinapolitical

sciencedegreeprogram.Master-leveldegreesareincreasingly

emphasizedasdesirableorexpectedcredentialsforfull

commitmenttoprofessionalcareersinmanyfields(e.g.,notonlyin

businessadministrationandpublicadministration,butalsoinfields

suchassocialwork,nursing,andeducationwheretheappropriate

degreeforprofessionalentrywasoncethebaccalaureate),andthe

master'sdegree—usually,butnotalways,themasterofpublic

administration(MFA)—isbecomingtherecognizeddegreeforthose

whoaspiretocareersinpublicadministration.Itshouldbe

remembered,though,thatpublicorganizationsandactivitiescover

virtuallythewholespectrumofcontennpQraryspecialitiesandthat

theeducationalbackgroundandspecialtiesofpublicadministrators

thereforereflectthisdiversity.

Asmodernandcontemporarypublicadministrationevolved,it

tendedtodevelopamoreorlessregularsetofsubfields,

approaches,andtopicalinterests.Thesegenerallyhavetodoeither

withthefunctionalandtechnicalspecializationsofpublic

administration,withspecificmethodsandapproaches,orwiththe

phenomenaofspecificlocalesandissueareasofpublic

administration.

Thus,publicadministrationhassomesubfieldswhichdealwith

concernswhich,inoneformoranotherhavebeenpartofthefield

sinceisearliestdays.Budgetandfinance(howtoprovide,handle,

andaccountformaterialresources),personnel(thepoliciesand

managementofhumanresources),planning,operations

management,organizationaldesignandmanagement,

communicationsandcommunicationsystems,record-keeping,

accountingofvariouskinds,reportingofvariouskindsandfora

varietyofpurposesandclientele,internalandexternalpublic

relations,andahostofsimilarconcernsconstitutesomeofthe

technicalandfunctionalfociofthefield.Inadditional,thereare

variousconcernsdealingwiththeenvironmentandcontextof

administration:theconstitutionalandlegalcontext;thecontextof

thepolitical,economic,andsocietalstructure,requirements,and

processes;thevalues,history,traditions,andhabitsofthesociety

anditscomponents;thevalues,history,requirements,and

processesoftheorganizations,programs,andcomponentsof

specificrelevanceatanygiventime;andmanyothersuchfactors

(aswellastheirinterrelationships).

Therearealsospecializationsandfocihavingtodowiththe

specificformandlevelatwhichadministrationoccurs:international

administration;nationaladministration;federal/confederal

administration;state/provinceadministration;district/department

/sectoradministration;city,county,andlocaladministration;

inter-governmentalandinter-organizationaladministration;"notfor

profit"administration;andsoforth.Issueareaspresentothertopics

andspecializations:police,fire,schools,military,medical,

environmental,technologyandtechnologytransfer,scienceand

scientificapplications,government-business-industrycooperation,

andahostofotherspecificconcernsspawnspecializationsof

knowledge,application,training,anexperience.

When.onerealizesthatallthese(andmanymare)canbe

viewedascomponentsofahugematrixwhereanyone(ormore)

canberelatedtoanyotherone(qnemore),thecomplexityand

varietyofthefieldofpublicadministrationissuggested.

Unit2

ThePracticeofPublic

Administration

TextA

TheRiseoftheAmericanAdministrativeState

Today,thereareperhaps15millioncivilianpublicemployeesin

theUnitedStates.Thegrowthof.thisnumberinthetwentieth

centuryandthedevelopmentoflargeadministrativecomponents

ingovernmentsatalllevelsaregenerallyreferredtoastheuriseof

theadministiativestate”,Thetermadministrativestateisintended

toconveyseveralrealitiesofcontemporarygovernment:thata

greatdealofthesociety'sresourcesarespentonthesalariesand

functionsofpublicadministrators;thatpublicadministratorsare

crucialtotheoperationofcontemporarygovernment;that,asa

whole,theyarepoliticallypowerful;andthatthenationhasdecided

uponacourseofattemptingtosolveitsproblemsandachieveits

aimsthroughtheuseofadministrativeaction.Thegrowthof

administrativepowerisaworldwidephenomenonthataffectsthe

natureofgovernmentsinvirtuallyallnations.

ThePoliticalRootsoftheAmericanadministrativeState

TheconstitutionalgovernmentoftheUnitedStatescameinto

existencein1789withsomeclearlystatedformalgoals.Theseare

foundinthePreambletotheConstitution,whichreads:

WETHEPEOPLEoftheUnitedStates,inOrdertoformamore

perfectUnion,establishJustice,insuredomesticTranquility,provide

forthecommondefence,promotethegeneralWelfare,andsecure

theBlessingsofLibertytoourselvesandourFbsterity,doordainand

establishthisCONSTITUTIONfortheUnitedStatesofAmerica.

Inthispassageitcanbefoundsomeoftheclassicpurposesof

almostallcontemporarynations:thedesiretoprovideforthe

defenseofthepoliticalcommunity,forlawandorder,andforthe

generalwelfare.Thelattermayseemtoovaguetoconveyanything

ofaspecificnature,butgenerallyitincludesacommitmentto

economicdevelopmentandtotheprovisionofservicesbythe

governmentforthepurposeofadvancingthecommongood.The

ideath3tthestateshouldprovidesuchservicesdidnotdevelqpin

WesternEuropeuntilthe1660s,butnowitperhapsthemost

prominentfeatureoftheadministrativestate.

Thedecisionstopursuethesepurposesinthefirstplaceare

political.Soisthechoiceofameansforachievingthem.Several

alternativestogovernmentsponsorshipofsuchservicesdoexist.

Governmentcouldrelyheavilyuponprivateresourcesand

incentivestoservetheirpurpose.Fbrexample,privatearmiesof

mer9ades_ware_QnGe.ammmQQmeansWzagirLgzajQi

promotingnationaldefense"Educationwasonceaprivateor

church-relatedendeavor.Takingcareofindividuals'healthand

welfareneedswasonceleftuptofamiliesandchurches.Private

actionhasfrequentlybeenaugmentedbytheprovisiQnqf

governmentalfinancialassistancetqthoseindividualswhose

actionspromotegeneralnationalgoals.Forinstance,atonetime

mentallyretardedpersonswere"sold"toprivateindividualswho

wouldcareforthemattheleastcosttothegovernment,whichwas

willingtopayforthisserviceaspartofitscommitmenttothe

commoninterest.Farmsubsidiespayprivatefarmerstousethe

nation'sagriculturalresourcesinthenationalinterest.Today,some

economists,suchasMiltonFriedman,arguethateducationshould

besuppliedbyprivateorganizationsthroughaschemeinwhichthe

parentsofschoolchildrenwouldreceivetuitionvouchersfromthe

government.Thesecouldbeusedatanyschooltheparentsfelt

bestsuitedtheirchildren'seducationalneeds.Suchanapproach,it

isargued,wouldcreateagreaterincentiveandwouldalsomaximize

thefreedomofparentstochooseamongcompetingeducational

services.Smilarly,variousincentivescanbebuiltintothe

government'ssystemoftaxationtopromoteindividualbehavior

deemedinthecommoninterest.

Itisoftenfeasiblefarthegovernmenttopromoteitsobjectives

throughrelianceonprivateactionandthemanipulationof

subsidesandincentives.Butthisisnotalwaysgovernment's

preferredchoiceofmeans.Sometimes-indeed,withincreasing

frequencyinthetwentiethcentury-governmentsseektoachieve

theirgoalsthroughdirectpublicaction.Forinstance,inthehousing

example,governmentsseektoassurethateveryoneisadequately

housedbybuildingandrunningpublichousingprojects.Insteadof

payingprivateindividualstotakecareofthementallyretarded,

governmentsbuildandoperatementalhealthfacilitiesforthis

purpose.Similarly,education,defense,andahostofother

operationsareundertakenbygovernment.

Theessenceoftheadministrativestateandtheneedforlarge-

scalepublicadministrationlieinthepolicyofgovernmentsto

undertakeorganizationalactionthemselvestoachievetheir

ultimatepoliticalgoals.ItiscommonlybelievedthatAmerican

foundingfathersneveranticipatedthatgovernmentsintheUnited

Stateswouldbecomeengagedinagreatdealofadministrative

action.However,itisalsoclearthattheConstitutionitselfindicates

thepreferenceforpublicactioninsomeareas.Forinstance,it

authorizesthefederalgovernmenttoestablishpostofficesand

postroadsandtoraiseanddirectandarmyandnavy.Evenabrief

reviewofthedevelopmentoflarge-scalepublicadministrationin

theUnitedStatesduringthepasttwocenturiesindicatestheextent

towhichsuchdirectadministrativeactionhasbecomeincreasingly

commonplace.

Inathoughtfulandsuccinctanalysis,JamesQ.Wilsonhas

identifiedseveralprimaryrootsofthedevelopmentofthe

contemporaryAmericanadministrativestate.Onewastoprovidea

reliablepostalservice.TheU.S.FbstOfficewasnotviewedasan

enditself,butratherasameansofpromotingeconomic

developmentandnationalcohesion.

Asecondsourceofadministrativegrowthhasbeenthedesire

topromoteeconomicdevelopmentandsocialwell-beingthrough

governmentalactionrecognizingtheneedsofvarioussectorsof

theeconomy.Fbrexample,theDepartmentofAgriculturewas

createdin1862andtheDepartmentsofCommerceandLaborcame

intoexistencein1913.Morerecently,theDepartmentofHealth,

Education,andWelfare(nowHealthandHumanServices)andthe

DepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment,Transportation,

Energy,andEducationhavebeencreatedtoprovidegovernmental

goalsintheseeconomicandsocialareasofAmericanlife.

DepartmentssuchasAgriculture,Labor,andCommerceareoften

calledclienteledepartmentsbecausetheydeallargelywitha

relativelywell-definedcategoryofpeoplewhoaregenerally

assumedtohavecommoneconomicinterest.

Anothersourceofadministrativegrowthhasbeendefense.The

DepartmentofWarandNavywerecreatedintheeighteenth

century,butthemilitaryestablishmentdidnotemergeasthe

federalgovernment'slargestadministrativeoperationuntilafter

WorldWarII.Sincethattime,theDepartmentofDefensehas

employedasmanyasthirdofallcivilianfederalworkers.

Interestingly,thismeansthatabouthalfofallfederalemployeesare

employedintwoagencies-DefenseandRostOffice.

Insum,thepoliticalrootsofdevelopmentofcontemporary

publicadministrationintheUnitedStateslieprimarilyintwopolitical

choicesmadebythegovernmentandsociety.Onewasthat

governmentwouldexisttopromotesuchobjectivesasthecommon

defense,economicdevelopment,andthegeneralwelfare.Thiswas

a—ChojfieJirsLjiiade—backJrLJhe」ate_178Qs.and—[ejuforced

subsequentlyonmanyoccasions.Secondhasbeenthemorerecent

choiceofplacingheavyrelianceupondirectprovisionofservices

andfunctionsbythegovernmentasopposedtoreliancesolelyupon

themanipulationofsubsidiesforprivateaction.Inadditiontothese

factors,theConstitutionexpressesadesiretopromotedomestic

tranquility,whichbringsustowhatcanbeconsideredthelegal

rootsofthecontemporaryadministrativestate.

Unit3

DecisionMakinginPublic

Administration

TextA

InPraiseofTheory

Nothingisquitesopracticalasagoodtheory.Theoryinthe

socialsciences,especiallyeconomictheory,isfrequentlyattacked

bypractitionersbecauseitsfunctionissooftenmisunderstood.

Others,especiallythoseoutsideofthedisciplineofeconomics,

wronglybelievethatthereisanoversupplyofcompetingtheories

andparadigmsineconomics.Economistssufferthebuttofjokes

suchas,"ifyoulayalloftheeconomistsintheworldendtoendyou

willneverreachaconclusion."theamountofdisagreement

amongstresearcheconomists,ascomparedtopoliticaleconomy

commentatorsandscribblers,ismuchlessthanitisoftensupposed.

Indeed,thateconomistsdonotagreeonpolicyprescriptionsisa

reflectionofthecomplexityanduncertaintyoftheworldinwhich

weliveandforwhichpolicyhastobedesigned.BjJicyjulesa【e

contingentuponarealitywhichunfoldswithuncertainty.Other

disciplines,eventhehardsciences,havetheircontroversies:whatis

theoriginoftheuniverse;whatisthecauseofcancer?Recently,

forensicevidenceprovidedtoacourtoflawhasbeenfound

wanting.

Dopublicpoliciespromotethegeneralwelfareofcitizens?Will

policyxhaveanimpactuponthewelfareofaspecificgroupof

citizens?nLaiswejthese—questiQns"aid_mQie,—RractitiQners

frequentlyadoptasetqfpolicyindicators(forexample,educational

attainmentLmQialityiecQnQmicJndicaiQis).Buthowrobustare

theseindicators;whatarethecausalrelationsbetweenthese

statisticsandindividualwell-being(welfare)?Whatimplicitsocial

valuesdotheseindicatorsreflect?Whatisthesetofcausallinks

betweenpublicpoliciesandindividuals'welfare?Thesequestions

areoftenregardedastroublesomebypoliticiansandsomecareer

policyadviserswhoseinterestslieinprovidingaquickfixtosocial

problems.Itistheroleoftheorytochallengeandtoquestionthe

adequacyofexistingpracticeandtoimprovethequalityofthe

argumentsinthepolicydebate.总rformbeingimpractical,theoryis

extremelypracticalandanappreciationofhowtousetheoryin

formulatingpolicyargumentwillleadtoimprovedpractice.

fconomictheory'scontributiontopolicyanalysisanddesignis

topromoteanunderstandingofeventsandphenomenawithinthe

domainofpublicpolicy.Understandingandexplanationofeventsis

not,however,synonymouswithprediction.Evenwhenphenomena

(consider,forexample,earthquakes)areunderstooditisnotalways

possibletopredictwhenthephenomenonwillnextoccur.Recently,

chaostheoryhastaughtthatincomplexsystemssmall

perturbatiQnsjcanliuMuRlQJatgeeYentEWhilstanunderstanding

oftheprocessesanddynamicsofasystemisofimportancefor

purposeofcontrolandmanipulation,itdoesnotfollowthatthe

precisetimingofeventscanbepredicted.Instead,statementsof

futureeventsmustbemadeinprobabilisticterms,i.e.ifconditions

XandYprevailthenthereisaprobabilitythatZwilloccur.An

assessmentoftheprobabilitiesinformsmanagersanddecision­

makers.Thus,forecastsofeconomicandsocialeventsmustnotbe

regardedashavingprobabilitiesofunityassignedtothem(i.e.

completecertainty),insteadtheforecasterneedstoinformthe

decision-makersoftheprobability(confidence)oftheforecast

beingcorrect.Thefurtherasocioeconomiceventsliesintothe

future,theloweristheprobabilitythatitsforecastbeaccurate.

Ausefultheorymustencompasstheeventwhichistobe

explained:theevent(s)shouldnotcontradictthetheory.

Furthermore,usefultheoriesarethosewhicharecommunicableto

others.Ifaneventcanbeincorporatedintoatheorythenitmeans

thattheevent(phenomenon)isunderstood.Ifitcannotbeso

incorporatedthentheeventisnotunderstoodandthetheoryisnot

asgeneralasmighthavebeensupposed.Fblicyinterventions

requireanunderstandingoftheeventswhichlieinthepolicy

domain:theyrequireanunderstandingofthecausalprocesses

whichgaverisetotheevent.Suchunderstandingcanonlybethe

resultofsystematicresearchwithinawiderconceptualframework.

Thisreducesthechancesoffutileandmisdirectedinterventions

whichoftenresultincatastrophicoutcomes.Thereisnothingquite

sopracticalasagoodtheory.Soundtheoryisalineoffirstdefence

againstmadmenandcranks.Policymanagersneedpolicyanalysts

andpolicyanalystsneedsoundtheory.

Theoriesstartfromaxioms,i.e.generallyagreeduponbasic

statementsoftherealworld.Atheoristseekstofindoutofthose

propositionswhicharepresentedas