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编号:毕业设计外文翻译(原文)院(系):电子工程与自动化学院专业:测控技术与仪器学生姓名:李XX学号:XXX指引教师单位:电子工程与自动化学院指引教师:XXX职称:XXX年5月20日InformationControlAutomaticControlAutomaticcontrolhasplayedavitalroleintheadvanceofengineeringandscience.Inadditiontoitsextremeimportanceinspace-vehiclesystems,missile-guidancesystems,roboticsystems,andthelike,automaticcontrolhasbecomeanimportantandintegralpartofmodernmanufacturingandindustrialprocesses.Forexample,automaticcontrolisessentialinthenumericalcontrolofmachinetoolsinthemanufacturingindustries,inthedesignofautopilotsystemsintheaerospaceindustries,andinthedesignofcarsandtrucksintheautomobileindustries.Itisalsoessentialinsuchindustrialoperationsascontrollingpressure,temperature,humidity,viscosity,andflowintheprocessindustries.Sinceadvancesinthetheoryandpracticeofautomaticcontrolprovidethemeansforattainingoptimalperformanceofdynamicsystems,improvingproductivity,relievingthedrudgeryofmanyroutinerepetitivemanualoperations,andmore,mostengineersandscientistsmustnowhaveagoodunderstandingofthisfield.Controlengineeringisbasedonthefoundationsoffeedbacktheoryandlinearsystemanalysis,anditintegratestheconceptsofnetworktheoryandcommunicationtheory.Thereforecontrolengineeringisnotlimitedtoanyengineeringdisciplinebutisequallyapplicabletoaeronautical,chemical,mechanical,environmental,civil,andelectricalengineering.Forexample,acontrolsystemoftenincludeselectrical,mechanical,andchemicalcomponents.Furthermore,astheunderstandingofthedynamicsofbusiness,social,andpoliticalsystemsincreases,theabilitytocontrolthesesystemswillalsoincrease.Acontrolsystemisaninterconnectionofcomponentsformingasystemconfigurationthatwillprovideadesiredsystemresponse.Thebasisforanalysisofasystemisthefoundationprovidedbylinearsystemtheory,whichassumesacause-effectrelationshipforthecomponentsofasystem.Thereforeacomponentorprocesstobecontrolledcanberepresentedbyablock,asshowninFigure8.1.Theinput-outputrelationshiprepresentsthecause-and-effectrelationshipoftheprocess,whichinturnrepresentsaprocessingoftheinputsignaltoprovideanoutputsignalvariable,oftenwithapoweramplification.Ingeneral,controlsystemscanbecategorizedasbeingeitheropen-looporclosed–loop.Thedistinguishingfeaturebetweenthesetwotypesofcontrolsystemsistheuseoffeedbackcomparisonforclosed-loopoperation.1.Open-loopControlSystemAnopen-loopcontrolsystemutilizesacontrollerorcontrolactuatortoobtainthedesiredresponse,asshowninFigure8.2.Anopen-loopsystemisasystemwithoutfeedback,simplestformofcontrollingdevices.Figure8.3illustratesasimpletank-levelcontrolsystem.WewishtoholdthetanklevelhwithinreasonableacceptablelimitseventhoughtheoutletflowthroughvalueV1isvaried.ThiscanbeachievedbyirregularmanualadjustmentoftheinletflowratebyvalveV2.Thesystemisnotaprecisionsystem,asitdoesnothavethecapabilityofaccuratelymeasuringtheoutputflowratethroughvalveV1,theinputflowratethroughvalveV2,orthetanklevel.Figure8.4showsthesimplerelationshipthatexistsinthissystembetweentheinput(thedesiredtanklevel)andtheoutput(theactualtanklevel).Thiscontrolsystemdoesnothaveanyfeedbackcomparison,andthetermopenloopisusedtodescribethisabsence.Figure8.3Tank-levelcontrolsystemOutput(actualtanklevel)OuputInputFigure8.1ProcesstobecontrolledProcessFigure8.3Tank-levelcontrolsystemOutput(actualtanklevel)OuputInputFigure8.1ProcesstobecontrolledProcessOutputActuatingdeviceProcessDisireouputresponseFigure8.2Anopen-loopsystemhControlsystem(valueandoperator)Input(desiredtanklevel)Figure8.4Tank-levelcontrolsystemblackdiagram2.Closed-loopControlSystemIncontrasttoanopen-loopcontrolsystem,aclosed-loopcontrolsystemutilizesanadditionalmeasureoftheactualoutputtocomparetheactualoutputwiththedesiredoutputresponse.Themeasureoftheoutputiscalledthefeedbacksignal.Asimpleclosed-loopfeedbackcontrolsystemisshowninFigure8.5.Afeedbackcontrolsystemisacontrolsystemthattendstomaintainaprescribedrelationshipofonesystemvariabletoanotherbycomparingfunctionsofthesevariablesandusingthedifferenceasameansofcontrol.OutputComOutputComparisonControllerProcessDesireoutputresponseMeasurementFigure8.5 Close-loopcontrolsystemClosed-loopcontrolsystemsderivetheirvaluableaccuratereproductionoftheinputfromfeedbackcomparison.Anerrordetectorderivesasignalproportionaltothedifferencesbetweentheinputandoutput.Theclosed-loopcontrolsystemdrivestheoutputuntilitequalstheinputandtheerroriszero.Anydifferencesbetweentheactualanddesiredoutputwillbeautomaticallycorrectedinaclosed-loopcontrolsystem.Throughproperdesignthesystemcanbemaderelativelyindependentofsecondaryinputsandchangesincomponentcharacteristics.Figure8.6illustratesanautomatictank-levelcontrolversionofthesystemshowninFigure8.3.ItcanmaintainthedesiredtanklevelhwithinquiteaccuratetoleranceseventhroughtheoutputflowratethroughvalueV1isvaried.Ifthetanklevelisnotcorrect,anerrorvoltageisdeveloped.ThisisamplifiedandappliedtoamotordrivethatadjustsvalueV2inordertorestorethedesiredtanklevelbyadjustingtheinletflowrate.AblockdiagramanalogoustothissystemisshowninFigure8.7.Becausefeedbackcomparisonispresent,thetermclosed-loopisusedtodescribethesystem’soperation.Input(desiredtanklevel)hInput(desiredtanklevel)h+v-vPoweramplifierMotordriveFloatErrorFigure8.6 Automatictank-levelcontrolsystemPoweramplifierTankFloatMotordriveFigure8.7 Blackdiagramofautomatictank-levelcontrolsystemOutput(actualtanklevel)Error+-Duetotheincreasingcomplexityofthesystemundercontrolandtheinterestinachievingoptimumperformance,theimportanceofcontrolsystemengineeringhasgrowninthepastdecade.Furthermore,asthesystembecomemorecomplex,theinterrelationshipofmanycontrolledvariablesmustbeconsideredinthecontrolscheme.AblockdiagramdepictingamultivariablecontrolsystemisshowninFigure8.8.Theintroductionoffeedbackenablesustocontroladesiredoutputandcanimproveaccuracy,butitrequiresattentiontotheissueofstabilityofresponse.ControllerControllerProcessMeasurementDesiredoutputresponseOutputvariablesFigure8.8 MulutivariablecontrolsystemMicrocontrollerAmicrocontroller(sometimesabbreviatedµC,uCorMCU)isasmallcomputeronasingleintegratedcircuitcontainingaprocessorcore,memory,andprogrammableinput/outputperipherals.ProgrammemoryintheformofNORflashisalsooftenincludedonchip,aswellasatypicallysmallamountofRAM.Microcontrollersaredesignedforembeddedapplications,incontrasttothemicroprocessorsusedinpersonalcomputersorothergeneralpurposeapplications.Microcontrollersareusedinautomaticallycontrolledproductsanddevices,suchasautomobileenginecontrolsystems,implantablemedicaldevices,remotecontrols,officemachines,appliances,powertools,toysandotherembeddedsystems.Byreducingthesizeandcostcomparedtoadesignthatusesaseparatemicroprocessor,memory,andinput/outputdevices,microcontrollersmakeiteconomicaltodigitallycontrolevenmoredevicesandprocesses.Mixedsignalmicrocontrollersarecommon,integratinganalogcomponentsneededtocontrolnon-digitalelectronicsystems.Somemicrocontrollersmayusefour-bitwordsandoperateatclockratefrequenciesaslowas4kHz,forlowpowerconsumption(milliwattsormicrowatts).Theywillgenerallyhavetheabilitytoretainfunctionalitywhilewaitingforaneventsuchasabuttonpressorotherinterrupt;powerconsumptionwhilesleeping(CPUclockandmostperipheralsoff)maybejustnanowatts,makingmanyofthemwellsuitedforlonglastingbatteryapplications.Othermicrocontrollersmayserveperformance-criticalroles,wheretheymayneedtoactmorelikeadigitalsignalprocessor(DSP),withhigherclockspeedsandpowerconsumption.EmbeddeddesignAmicrocontrollercanbeconsideredaself-containedsystemwithaprocessor,memoryandperipheralsandcanbeusedasanembeddedsystem.Themajorityofmicrocontrollersinusetodayareembeddedinothermachinery,suchasautomobiles,telephones,appliances,andperipheralsforcomputersystems.Thesearecalledembeddedsystems.Whilesomeembeddedsystemsareverysophisticated,manyhaveminimalrequirementsformemoryandprogramlength,withnooperatingsystem,andlowsoftwarecomplexity.Typicalinputandoutputdevicesincludeswitches,relays,solenoids,LEDs,smallorcustomLCDdisplays,radiofrequencydevices,andsensorsfordatasuchastemperature,humidity,lightleveletc.Embeddedsystemsusuallyhavenokeyboard,screen,disks,printers,orotherrecognizableI/Odevicesofapersonalcomputer,andmaylackhumaninteractiondevicesofanykind.1.InterruptsMicrocontrollersmustproviderealtime(predictable,thoughnotnecessarilyfast)responsetoeventsintheembeddedsystemtheyarecontrolling.Whencertaineventsoccur,aninterruptsystemcansignaltheprocessortosuspendprocessingthecurrentinstructionsequenceandtobeginaninterruptserviceroutine(ISR,or“interrupthandler”).TheISRwillperformanyprocessingrequiredbasedonthesourceoftheinterruptbeforereturningtotheoriginalinstructionsequence.Possibleinterruptsourcesaredevicedependent,andoftenincludeeventssuchasaninternaltimeroverflow,completingananalogtodigitalconversion,alogiclevelchangeonaninputsuchasfromabuttonbeingpressed,anddatareceivedonacommunicationlink.Wherepowerconsumptionisimportantasinbatteryoperateddevices,interruptsmayalsowakeamicrocontrollerfromalowpowersleepstatewheretheprocessorishalteduntilrequiredtodosomethingbyaperipheralevent.2.ProgramsMicrocontrollerprogramsmustfitintheavailableon-chipprogrammemory,sinceitwouldbecostlytoprovideasystemwithexternal,expandable,memory.Compilersandassemblersareusedtoconverthigh-levellanguageandassemblerlanguagecodesintoacompactmachinecodeforstorageinthemicrocontroller’smemory.Dependingonthedevice,theprogrammemorymaybepermanent,read-onlymemorythatcanonlybeprogrammedatthefactory,orprogrammemorymaybefield-alterableflashorerasableread-onlymemory.HigherintegrationIncontrasttogeneral-purposeCPUs,micro-controllersmaynotimplementanexternaladdressordatabusastheyintegrateRAMandnon-volatilememoryonthesamechipastheCPU.Usingfewerpins,thechipcanbeplacedinamuchsmaller,cheaperpackage.Integratingthememoryandotherperipheralsonasinglechipandtestingthemasaunitincreasesthecostofthatchip,butoftenresultsindecreasednetcostoftheembeddedsystemasawhole.EvenifthecostofaCPUthathasintegratedperipheralsisslightlymorethanthecostofaCPUandexternalperipherals,havingfewerchipstypicallyallowsasmallerandcheapercircuitboard,andreducesthelaborrequiredtoassembleandtestthecircuitboard.Thisintegrationdrasticallyreducesthenumberofchipsandtheamountofwiringandcircuitboardspacethatwouldbeneededtoproduceequivalentsystemsusingseparatechips.Furthermore,onlowpincountdevicesinparticular,eachpinmayinterfacetoseveralinternalperipherals,withthepinfunctionselectedbysoftware.Thisallowsaparttobeusedinawidervarietyofapplicationsthanifpinshaddedicatedfunctions.Micro-controllershaveprovedtobehighlypopularinembeddedsystemssincetheirintroductioninthe1970s.SomemicrocontrollersuseaHarvardarchitecture:separatememorybusesforinstructionsanddata,allowingaccessestotakeplaceconcurrently.WhereaHarvardarchitectureisused,instructionwordsfortheprocessormaybeadifferentbitsizethanthelengthofinternalmemoryandregisters;forexample:12-bitinstructionsusedwith8-bitdataregisters.Thedecisionofwhichperipheraltointegrateisoftendifficult.Themicrocontrollervendorsoftentradeoperatingfrequenciesandsystemdesignflexibilityagainsttime-to-marketrequirementsfromtheircustomersandoveralllowersystemcost.Manufacturershavetobalancetheneedtominimizethechipsizeagainstadditionalfunctionality.Microcontrollerarchitecturesvarywidely.Somedesignsincludegeneral-purposemicroprocessorcores,withoneormoreROM,RAM,orI/Ofunctionsintegratedontothepackage.Otherdesignsarepurposebuiltforcontrolapplications.Amicro-controllerinstructionsetusuallyhasmanyinstructionsintendedforbit-wiseoperationstomakecontrolprogramsmorecompact.Forexample,ageneralpurposeprocessormightrequireseveralinstructionstotestabitinaregisterandbranchifthebitisset,whereamicro-controllercouldhaveasingleinstructiontoprovidethatcommonly-requiredfunction.Microcontrollerstypicallydonothaveamathcoprocessor,sofloatingpointarithmeticisperformedbysoftware.ProgrammingenvironmentsMicrocontrollerswereoriginallyprogrammedonlyinassemblylanguage,butvarioushigh-levelprogramminglanguagesarenowalsoincommonusetotargetmicrocontrollers.Theselanguagesareeitherdesignedspeciallyforthepurpose,orversionsofgeneralpurposelanguagessuchastheCprogramminglanguage.Compilersforgeneralpurposelanguageswilltypicallyhavesomerestrictionsaswellasenhancementstobettersupporttheuniquecharacteristicsofmicrocontrollers.Somemicrocontrollershaveenvironmentstoaiddevelopingcertaintypesofapplications.Microcontrollervendorsoftenmaketoolsfreelyavailabletomakeiteasiertoadopttheirhardware.Manymicrocontrollersaresoquirkythattheyeffectivelyrequiretheirownnon-standarddialectsofC,suchasSDCCforthe8051,whichpreventusingstandardtools(suchascodelibrariesorstaticanalysistools)evenforcodeunrelatedtohardwarefeatures.Interpretersareoftenusedtohidesuchlowlevelquirks.Interpreterfirmwareisalsoavailableforsomemicrocontrollers.Forexample,BASIContheearlymicrocontrollersIntel8052;BASICandFORTHontheZilogZ8aswellassomemoderndevices.Typicallytheseinterpreterssupportinteractiveprogramming.Simulatorsareavailableforsomemicrocontrollers,suchasinMicrochip’sMPLABenvironmentandtheRevolutionEducationPICAXErange.Theseallowadevelopertoanalyzewhatthebehaviorofthemicrocontrollerandtheirprogramshouldbeiftheywereusingtheactualpart.Asimulatorwillshowtheinternalprocessorstateandalsothatoftheoutputs,aswellasallowinginputsignalstobegenerated.Whileontheonehandmostsimulatorswillbelimitedfrombeingunabletosimulatemuchotherhardwareinasystem,theycanexerciseconditionsthatmayotherwisebehardtoreproduceaswellinthephysicalimplementation,andcanbethequickestwaytodebugandanalyzeproblems.Recentmicrocontrollersareoftenintegratedwithon-chipdebugcircuitrythatwhenaccessedbyanin-circuitemulatorviaJTAG,allowdebuggingofthefirmwarewithadebugger.TypesofmicrocontrollersThereareseveraldozenmicrocontrollerarchitecturesandvendorsincluding:ParallaxPropellerIntel8051SiliconLaboratoriesPipelined8051MicrocontrollersARMprocessors(frommanyvendors)usingARM7orCortex-M3coresaregenerallymicrocontrollersSTMicroelectronicsSTM8(8-bit),ST10(16-bit)andSTM32(32-bit)AtmelAVR(8-bit),AVR32(32-bit),andAT91SAM(32-bit)HitachiH8,HitachiSuperH(32-bit)MIPS(32-bitPIC32)NECV850(32-bit)PowerPCISEPSoC(ProgrammableSystem-on-Chip)Rabbit(8-bit)TexasInstrumentsMicrocontrollers:TIMSP43016-bitMicrocontrollers,C(32-bit),andStellaris(32-bit)ToshibaTLCS-870(8-bit/16-bit)andmanyothers,someofwhichareusedinverynarrowrangeofapplicationsoraremorelikeapplicationsprocessorsthanmicrocontrollers.Themicrocontrollermarketisextremelyfragmented,withnumerousvendors,technologies,andmarkets.Notethatmanyvendorssell(orhavesold)multiplearchitectures.Examplesofmicrocontrollers1.Intel8051The8051architectureprovidesmanyfunctions(CPU,RAM,ROM,I/O,interruptlogic,timer,etc.)inasinglepackage.Anewandparticularlyusefulfeatureofthe8051corewastheinclusionofaBooleanprocessingenginewhichallowsbit-levelbooleanlogicoperationstobecarriedoutdirectlyandefficientlyoninternalregistersandRAM.Thiscriticalfeaturehelpedcementthe8051’spopularityinindustrialcontrolapplicationsbecauseitreducedcodesizebyasmuchas30%.Anothervaluedfeatureisfourseparateregistersets,whichgreatlyreducesinterruptlatencycomparedtothemorecommonmethodofstoringinterruptcontextonastack.2.ARMARMisa32-bitreducedinstructionsetcomputer(RISC)instructionsetarchitecture(ISA)developedbyARMHoldings.ItwasknownastheAdvancedRISCMachine,andbeforethatastheAcornRISCMachine.TheARMarchitectureisthemostwidelyused32-bitISAintermsofnumbersproduced.TherelativesimplicityofARMprocessorsmakesthemsuitableforlowpowerapplications.Asaresult,theyhavebecomedominantinthemobileandembeddedelectronicsmarket,asrelativelylow-cost,smallmicroprocessorsandmicrocontrollers.ARMprocessorsaredevelopedbyARMandbyARMlicensees.ProminentARMprocessorfamiliesdevelopedbyARMHoldingsincludetheARM7,ARM9,ARM11andCortex.3.AtmelAVRTheAVRisamodifiedHarvardarchitecture8-bitRISCsinglechipmicrocontrollerwhichwasdevelopedbyAtmelin1996.TheAVRwasoneofthefirstmicrocontrollerfamiliestouseon-chipflashmemoryforprogramstorage,asopposedtoone-timeprogrammableROM,EPROM,orEEPROMusedbyothermicrocontrollersatthetime.TheAVRisamodifiedHarvardarchitecturemachinewhereprogramanddataisstoredinseparatephysicalmemorysystemsthatappearindifferentaddressspaces,buthavingtheabilitytoreaddataitemsfromprogrammemoryusingspecialinstructions.NatureofMechanicalDesignTheultimateobjectiveofmechanicaldesignistoproduceausefulproductthatsatisfiestheneedsofacustomerandthatissafe,efficient,reliable,economical,andpracticaltomanufacture.Thinkbroadlywhenansweringthequestion,“whoisthecustomerfortheproductorsystemIamabouttodesign?”Considerthefollowingscenarios:Youaredesigningacanopenerforthehomemarker.Theultimatecustomeristhepersonwhowillpurchasethecanopeneranduseitinthekitchenofahome.Othercustomersmayincludethedesignerofthepackagingfortheopener,themanufacturingstaffwhomustproducetheopenereconomically,andservicepersonnelwhorepairtheunit.Youaredesigningapieceofproductionmachineryforamanufacturingoperation.Thecustomersincludethemanufacturingengineerwhoisresponsiblefortheproductionoperation,theoperatorofthemachine,thestaffwhoinstallthemachine,andthemaintenancepersonnelwhomustservicethemachinetokeepitingoodrunningorder.Youaredesigningapoweredsystemtoopenalargedooronapassengeraircraft.Thecustomsincludethepersonwhomustoperatethedoorinnormalserviceorinemergencies,thepeoplewhomustpassthroughthedoorduringuse,thepersonnelwhomanufacturetheopener,theinstallers,theaircraftstructuredesignerswhomustaccommodatetheloadsproducedbytheopenerduringflightandduringoperation,theservicetechnicianswhomaintainthesystem,andtheinteriordesignerswhomustshieldtheopenerduringusewhileallowingaccessforinstallationandmaintenance.Itisessentialthatyouknowthedesiresandexpectationsofallcustomersbeforebeginningproductdesign.Marketingprofessionalsareoftenemployedtomanagethedefinitionofcustomerexpectations,butdesignerswilllikelyworkwiththemasapartofaproductdevelopmentteam.Manymethodsareusedtodeterminewhatthecustomerwants.Onepopularmethod,calledqualityfunctiondeploymentorQFD,seekstoidentifyallofthefeaturesandperformancefactorsthatcustomersdesireandtoassesstherelativeimportanceofthesefactors.TheresultoftheQFDprocessisadetailedsetoffunctionsanddesignrequirementsfortheproduct.Itisalsoimportanttoconsiderhowthedesignprocessfitswithallfunctionsthatmusthappentodeliverasatisfactoryproducttothecustomerandtoservicetheproductthroughoutitslifecycle.Infact,itisimportanttoconsiderhowtheproductwillbedisposedofafterithasserveditsusefullife.ThetotalofallsuchfunctionsthataffecttheproductissometimescalledtheproductrealizationprocessorPRP.SkillsneededinmechanicaldesignProductengineersandmechanicaldesignersuseawiderangeofskillsandknowledgeintheirdailywork,includingthefollowing:(1)Sketching,technicaldrawingandcomputer-aideddesign.(2)Propertiesofmaterials,materialsprocessing,andmanufacturingprocesses.(3)Applicationsofchemistrysuchascorrosionprotection,plating,andpainting.(4)Statics,dynamics,strengthofmaterials,kinematics,andmechanisms.(5)Oralcommunication,listening,technicalwriting,andteamworkskills.(6)Fluidmechanics,thermodynamics,andheattransfer.(7)Fluidpower,thefundamentalsofelectricalphenomena,andindustrialcontrols.(8)Experimentaldesignandperformancetestingofmaterialsandmechanicalsystems.(9)Creativity,problemsolving,andprojectmanagement.(10)Stressanalysis.(11)Specializedknowledgeofthebehaviorofmachineelementssuchasgears,beltdrives,chaindrives,shafts,bearings,keys,splines,couplings,seals,springs,connections(bolted,riveted,welded,adhesive),electricmotors,linearmotiondevices,clutches,andbrakes.Itisexpectedthatyouwillhaveacquiredahighlevelofcompetenceinmulti-disciplinaryknowledgeandskillsthataredevelopedcontinuouslythroughoutyouracademicstudyandthroughexperience.Functions,designrequirements,andevaluationcriteriaInordertoemphasizetheimportanceofcarefullyidentifyingtheneedsandexpectationsofthecustomerpriortobeginningthedesignofamechanicaldevice,youcanformulatethesebyproducingclear,completestatementsoffunctions,designrequirements,andevaluationcriteria:Functionstellwhatthedevicemustdo,usinggeneral,nonquantitativestatementsthatemployactionphrasessuchastosupportaload,toliftacrate,totransmitpower,ortoholdtwostructuralmemberstogether.Designrequirementsaredetailed,usuallyquantitativestatementsofexpectedperformancelevels,environmentalconditionsinwhichthedevicemustoperate,limitationsonspaceorweight,oravailablematerialsandcomponentsthatmaybeused.Carefulpreparationoffunctionstatementsanddesignrequirementswillensurethatthedesigneffortisfocusedonthedesiredresults.Muchtimeandmoneycanbewastedondesignsthat,althoughtechnicallysound,donotmeetdesignrequirements.Designrequirementsshouldincludeeverythingthatisneeded,butatthesametimetheyshouldofferampleopportunityforinnovation.Evaluationcriteriaarestatementsofdesirablequalitativecharacteristicsofadesignthatassistthedesignerindecidingwhichalternativedesignisoptimum—thatis,thedesignthatmaximizesbenefitswhileminimizingdisadvantages.Evaluationcriteriashouldbedevelopedbyallmembersofaproductdevelopmentteamtoensurethattheinterestsofallconcernedpartiesareconsidered.Oftenweightsareassignedtothecriteriatoreflecttheirrelativeimportance.Safetymustalwaysbetheparamountcriterion.Differentdesignconceptsmayhavevaryinglevelsofinherentsafetyinadditiontomeetingstatedsafetyrequirementsasnotedinthedesignrequirementslist.Designersandengineersarelegallyliableifapersonisinjuredbecauseofadesignerror.Youmustconsideranyreasonablyforeseeableusesofthedeviceandensuresafetyofthoseoperatingitorthosewhomaybecloseby.Achievingahighoverallperformanceshouldalsobeahighpriority.Certaindesignconceptsmayhavedesirablefeaturesnotpresentonothers.Togethertheseelementscanbecalledthespecificationsforthedesign.MostdesignsprogressthroughacycleofactivitiesasoutlinedinFigure10.1.Youshouldtypicallyproposemorethanonepossiblealternativedesignconcept.Thisiswherecreativityisexercisedtoproducetrulynoveldesigns.Eachdesignconceptmustsatisfythefunctionsanddesignrequirements.Acriticalevaluationofthedesirablefeatures,advantages,anddisadvantagesofeachdesignconceptshouldbecompleted.Thenarationaldecisionanalysistechniqueshouldusetheevaluationcriteriatodecidewhichdesignconceptistheoptimumand,therefore,shouldbeproduced.ExampleoftheintegrationofmachineelementsintoamechanicaldesignMechanicaldesignistheprocessofdesigningand/orselectingmechanicalcomponentsandputtingthemtogethertoaccomplishadesiredfunction.Ofcourse,machineelementsmustbecompatible,mustfitwelltogether,andmustperformsafelyandefficiently.Thedesignermustconsidernotonlytheperformanceoftheelementbeingdesignedatagiventimebutalsotheelementswithwhichitmustinterface.IdentifycustomerrequirementsIdentifycustomerrequirementsDefinefunctionsofthedeviceStatedesignrequirementsDefineevaluationcriteriaProposeseveralalternativeDesignconceptsEvaluateeachproposealternativeRateeachalternativeagainsteachevaluationcriterionSelecttheoptimumdesignconceptCompletedetaileddesignoftheselectedconceptDefineSpecificationsCreateDesignConceptDecisionMakingDetailedDesignFigure10.1 StepsinthedesignprocessToillustratehowthedesignofmachineelementsmustbeintegratedwithalargermechanicaldesign,letusconsiderthedesignofaspeedreducerforthesmalltractor.Supposethat,toaccomplishthespeedreduction,youdecidetodesignadouble-reduction,spurgearspeedreducer.Youspecifyfourgears,threeshafts,sixbearing,andahousingtoholdtheindividualelementsinproperrelationtoeachother.Thedesignprocessasoutlinedhereimpliesthatthedesigncanprogressinsequence:fromthegearstotheshafts,tothebea
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