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2012年全国硕士研究生入学统一考试英语试题
SectionIUseofEnglish
Directions:
Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestword(s)foreachnumberedblankandmark
A,B,CorDonANSWERSHEET1.(10points)
TheethicaljudgmentsoftheSupremeCourtjusticeshavebecomeanimportant
issuerecently.Thecourtcannot_1_itslegitimacyasguardianoftheruleoflaw_2_
justicesbehavelikepoliticians.Yet,inseveralinstances,justicesactedinwaysthat
_3_thecourt'sreputationforbeingindependentandimpartial.
JusticeAntoninScalia,forexample,appearedatpoliticalevents.Thatkindof
activitymakesitlesslikelythatthecourt'sdecisionswillbe_4_asimpartial
judgments.Partoftheproblemisthatthejusticesarenot_5_byanethicscode.At
theveryleast,thecourtshouldmakeitself_6_tothecodeofconductthat_7_tothe
restofthefederaljudiciary.
Thisandothersimilarcases_8_thequestionofwhetherthereisstilla
_9_betweenthecourtandpolitics.
TheframersoftheConstitutionenvisionedlawlOhavingauthorityapart
frompolitics.Theygavejusticespermanentpositions_ll_theywouldbefreeto
_12_thoseinpowerandhavenoneedto_13_politicalsupport.Ourlegalsystem
wasdesignedtosetlawapartfrompoliticspreciselybecausetheyaresoclosely
_14_.
Constitutionallawispoliticalbecauseitresultsfromchoicesrootedin
fundamentalsocial_15_likelibertyandproperty.Whenthecourtdealswithsocial
policydecisions,thelawit_16_isinescapablypolitical-whichiswhydecisionssplit
alongideologicallinesaresoeasily_17_asunjust.
Thejusticesmust_18_doubtsaboutthecourt'slegitimacybymaking
themselves_19_tothecodeofconduct.Thatwouldmakerulingsmorelikelytobe
seenasseparatefrompoliticsand,_20_,convincingaslaw.
1.[A]emphasize[B]maintain[C]modify[D]recognize
2.[A]when[B]lest[C]before[D]unless
3.[A]restored[B]weakened[C]established[D]eliminated
4.[A]challenged[B]compromised[C]suspected[D]accepted
5.[A]advanced[B]caught[C]bound[D]founded
6.[A]resistant[B]subject[C]immune[D]prone
7.[A]resorts[B]sticks[C]loads[D]applies
8.[A]evade[B]raise[C]deny[D]settle
9.[A]line[B]barrier[C]similarity[D]conflict
10.[A]by[B]as[C]though[D]towards
11.[A]so[B]since[C]provided[D]though
12.[A]serve[B]satisfy[C]upset[D]replace
13.[A]confirm[B]express[C]cultivate[D]offer
14.[A]guarded[B]followed[C]studied[D]tied
15.[A]concepts[B]theories[C]divisions[D]conceptions
16.[A]excludes[B]questions[C]sh叩es[D]controls
17.[A]dismissed[B]released[C]ranked[D]distorted
18.[A]suppress[B]exploit[C]address[D]ignore
19.[A]accessible[B]amiable[C]agreeable[D]accountable
20.[A]byallmesns[B]atallcosts[C]inaword[D]asaresult
SectionIIReadingComprehension
PartA
Directions:
Readthefollowingfourtexts.AnswerthequestionsbeloweachtextbychoosingA,
B,CorD.MarkyouranswersonANSWERSHEET1.(40points)
Text1
Comeon-Everybody'sdoingit.Thatwhisperedmessage,halfinvitationand
halfforcing,iswhatmostofusthinkofwhenwehearthewordspeerpressure.It
usuallyleadstonogood-drinking,drugsandcasualsex.ButinhernewbookJoin
theClub,TinaRosenbergcontendsthatpeerpressurecanalsobeapositiveforce
throughwhatshecallsthesocialcure,inwhichorganizationsandofficialsusethe
powerofgroupdynamicstohelpindividualsimprovetheirlivesandpossiblythe
word.
Rosenberg,therecipientofaPulitzerPrize,offersahostofexampleofthe
socialcureinaction:InSouthCarolina,astate-sponsoredantismokingprogram
calledRageAgainsttheHazesetsouttomakecigarettesuncool.InSouthAfrica,an
HIV-preventioninitiativeknownasLoveLiferecruitsyoungpeopletopromotesafe
sexamongtheirpeers.
Theideaseemspromising,andRosenbergisaperceptiveobserver.Hercritique
ofthelamenessofmanypubic-healthcampaignsisspot-on:theyfailtomobilize
peerpressureforhealthyhabits,andtheydemonstrateaseriouslyflawed
understandingofpsychology."Daretobedifferent,pleasedon'tsmoke!”pleadsone
billboardcampaignaimedatreducingsmokingamongteenagers-teenagers,who
desirenothingmorethanfittingin.Rosenbergarguesconvincinglythatpublic-health
advocatesoughttotakeapagefromadvertisers,soskilledatapplyingpeerpressure.
Butonthegeneraleffectivenessofthesocialcure,Rosenbergislesspersuasive.
JointheClubisfilledwithtoomuchirrelevantdetailandnotenoughexplorationof
thesocialandbiologicalfactorsthatmakepeerpressuresopowerful.Themost
glaringflawofthesocialcureasit'spresentedhereisthatitdoesn'tworkverywell
forverylong.RageAgainsttheHazefailedoncestatefundingwascut.Evidence
thattheLoveLifeprogramproduceslastingchangesislimitedandmixed.
There'snodoubtthatourpeergroupsexertenormousinfluenceonourbehavior.
Anemergingbodyofresearchshowsthatpositivehealthhabits-aswellasnegative
ones-spreadthroughnetworksoffriendsviasocialcommunication.Thisisasubtle
formofpeerpressure:weunconsciouslyimitatethebehaviorweseeeveryday.
Farlesscertain,however,ishowsuccessfullyexpertsandbureaucratscanselect
ourpeergroupsandsteertheiractivitiesinvirtuousdirections.It'sliketheteacher
whobreaksupthetroublemakersinthebackrowbypairingthemwith
better-behavedclassmates.Thetacticneverreallyworks.Andthat'stheproblem
withasocialcureengineeredfromtheoutside:intherealworld,asinschool,we
insistonchoosingourownfriends.
21.Accordingtothefirstparagraph,peerpressureoftenemergesas
[A]asupplementtothesocialcure
[B]astimulustogroupdynamics
[C]anobstacletoschoolprogress
[D]acauseofundesirablebehaviors
22.Rosenbergholdsthatpublicadvocatesshould
[A]recruitprofessionaladvertisers
[B]learnfromadvertisers9experience
[C]stayawayfromcommercialadvertisers
[D]recognizethelimitationsofadvertisements
23.Intheauthor'sview,Rosenberg'sbookfailsto
[A]adequatelyprobesocialandbiologicalfactors
[B]effectivelyevadetheflawsofthesocialcure
[C]illustratethefunctionsofstatefunding
[D]producealong-lastingsocialeffect
24.Paragraph5showsthatourimitationofbehaviors
[A]isharmfultoournetworksoffriends
[B]willmisleadbehavioralstudies
[C]occurswithoutourrealizingit
[D]canproducenegativehealthhabits
25.Theauthorsuggestsinthelastparagraphthattheeffectofpeerpressureis
[A]harmful
[B]desirable
[C]profound
[D]questionable
Text2
Adealisadeal-except,apparently,whenEntergyisinvolved.Thecompany,a
majorenergysupplierinNewEngland,provokedjustifiedoutrageinVermontlast
weekwhenitannounceditwasrenegingonalongstandingcommitmenttoabideby
thestrictnuclearregulations.
Instead,thecompanyhasdonepreciselywhatithadlongpromiseditwouldnot
challengetheconstitutionalityofVennonfsrulesinthefederalcourt,aspartofa
desperateefforttokeepitsVermontYankeenuclearpowerplantrunning.It'sa
stunningmove.
Theconflicthasbeensurfacingsince2002,whenthecorporationbought
Vermont^onlynuclearpowerplant,anagingreactorinVernon.Asaconditionof
receivingstateapprovalforthesale,thecompanyagreedtoseekpermissionfrom
stateregulatorstooperatepast2012.In2006,thestatewentastepfurther,requiring
thatanyextensionoftheplanfslicensebesubjecttoVermontlegislature'sapproval.
Then,too,thecompanywentalong.
EitherEntergyneverreallyintendedtolivebythosecommitments,oritsimply
didn'tforeseewhatwouldhappennext.Astringofaccidents,includingthepartial
collapseofacoolingtowerin207andthediscoveryofanundergroundpipesystem
leakage,raisedseriousquestionsaboutbothVermontYankee'ssafetyandEntergy's
management-especiallyafterthecompanymademisleadingstatementsaboutthe
pipe.EnragedbyEntergy9sbehavior,theVermontSenatevoted26to4lastyear
againstallowinganextension.
Nowthecompanyissuddenlyclaimingthatthe2002agreementisinvalid
becauseofthe2006legislation,andthatonlythefederalgovernmenthasregulatory
powerovernuclearissues.Thelegalissuesinthecaseareobscure:whereasthe
SupremeCourthasruledthatstatesdohavesomeregulatoryauthorityovernuclear
power,legalscholarssaythatVermontcasewillofferaprecedent-settingtestofhow
farthosepowersextend.Certainly,therearevalidconcernsaboutthepatchwork
regulationsthatcouldresultifeverystatesetsitsownrules.ButhadEntergykeptits
word,thatdebatewouldbebesidethepoint.
ThecompanyseemstohaveconcludedthatitsreputationinVermontisalready
sodamagedthatithasnotinglefttolosebygoingtowarwiththestate.Butthere
shouldbeconsequences.Permissiontorunanuclearplantisapoblictrust.Entergy
runs11otherreactorsintheUnitedStates,includingPilgrimNuclearstationin
Plymouth.PledgingtorunPilgrimsafely,thecompanyhasappliedforfederal
permissiontokeepitopenforanother20years.ButastheNuclearRegulatory
Commission(NRC)reviewsthecompany'sapplication,itshouldkeepitmindwhat
promisesfromEntergyareworth.
26.Thephrase“renegingon”(Line3.para.l)isclosestinmeaningto
[A]condemning.
[B]reaffirming.
[C]dishonoring.
[D]securing.
27.Byenteringintothe2002agreement,Entergyintendedto
[A]obtainprotectionfromVermontregulators.
[B]seekfavorfromthefederallegislature.
[C]acquireanextensionofitsbusinesslicense.
[D]getpermissiontopurchaseapowerplant.
28.AccordingtoParagraph4,Entergyseemstohaveproblemswithits
[A]managerialpractices.
[B]technicalinnovativeness.
[C]financialgoals.
[D]businessvision
29.Intheauthor'sview,theVermontcasewilltest
[A]Entergy'scapacitytofulfillallitspromises.
[B]thematureofstates,patchworkregulations.
[C]thefederalauthorityovernuclearissues.
[D]thelimitsofstates'powerovernuclearissues.
30.Itcanbeinferredfromthelastparagraphthat
[A]Entergy\businesselsewheremightbeaffected.
[B]theauthorityoftheNRCwillbedefied.
[C]EntergywillwithdrawitsPlymouthapplication.
[D]Vermont'sreputationmightbedamaged.
Text3
Intheidealizedversionofhowscienceisdone,factsabouttheworldare
waitingtobeobservedandcollectedbyobjectiveresearcherswhousethescientific
methodtocarryouttheirwork.Butintheeverydaypracticeofscience,discovery
frequentlyfollowsanambiguousandcomplicatedroute.Weaimtobeobjective,but
wecannotescapethecontextofouruniquelifeexperience.Priorknowledgeand
interestinfluencewhatweexperience,whatwethinkourexperiencesmean,andthe
subsequentactionswetake.Opportunitiesformisinterpretation,error,and
self-deceptionabound.
Consequently,discoveryclaimsshouldbethoughtofasprotoscience.Similarto
newlystakedminingclaims,theyarefullofpotential.Butittakescollectivescrutiny
andacceptancetotransformadiscoveryclaimintoamaturediscovery.Thisisthe
credibilityprocess,throughwhichtheindividualresearcher^me,here,now
becomesthecommunity'sanyone,anywhere,anytime.Objectiveknowledgeisthe
goal,notthestartingpoint.
Onceadiscoveryclaimbecomespublic,thediscovererreceivesintellectual
credit.But,unlikewithminingclaims,thecommunitytakescontrolofwhathappens
next.Withinthecomplexsocialstructureofthescientificcommunity,researchers
makediscoveries;editorsandreviewersactasgatekeepersbycontrollingthe
publicationprocess;otherscientistsusethenewfindingtosuittheirownpurposes;
andfinally,thepublic(includingotherscientists)receivesthenewdiscoveryand
possiblyaccompanyingtechnology.Asadiscoveryclaimworksitthroughthe
community,theinteractionandconfrontationbetweensharedandcompetingbeliefs
aboutthescienceandthetechnologyinvolvedtransformsanindividual'sdiscovery
claimintothecommunity'scrediblediscovery.
Twoparadoxesexistthroughoutthiscredibilityprocess.First,scientificwork
tendstofbcusonsomeaspectofprevailingKnowledgethatisviewedasincomplete
orincorrect.Littlerewardaccompaniesduplicationandconfirmationofwhatis
alreadyknownandbelieved.Thegoalisnew-search,notre-search.Notsurprisingly,
newlypublisheddiscoveryclaimsandcrediblediscoveriesthatappeartobe
importantandconvincingwillalwaysbeopentochallengeandpotential
modificationorrefutationbyfutureresearchers.Second,noveltyitselffrequently
provokesdisbeliefNobelLaureateandphysiologistAlbertAzent-Gyorgyionce
describeddiscoveryas“seeingwhateverybodyhasseenandthinkingwhatnobody
hasthought.^^Butthinkingwhatnobodyelsehasthoughtandtellingotherswhatthey
havemissedmaynotchangetheirviews.Sometimesyearsarerequiredfortruly
noveldiscoveryclaimstobeacceptedandappreciated.
Intheend,credibility“happens“toadiscoveryclaim-aprocessthat
correspondstowhatphilosopherAnnetteBaierhasdescribedasthecommonsofthe
mind."Wereasontogether,challenge,revise,andcompleteeachother9sreasoning
andeachother'sconceptionsofreason.,,
31.Accordingtothefirstparagraph,theprocessofdiscoveryischaracterized
byits
[A]uncertaintyandcomplexity.
[B]misconceptionanddeceptiveness.
[C]logicalityandobjectivity.
[D]systematicnessandregularity.
32.ItcanbeinferredfromParagraph2thatcredibilityprocessrequires
[A]strictinspection.
[B]sharedefforts.
[C]individualwisdom.
[D]persistentinnovation.
33.Paragraph3showsthatadiscoveryclaimbecomescredibleafterit
[A]hasattractedtheattentionofthegeneralpublic.
[B]hasbeenexaminedbythescientificcommunity.
[C]hasreceivedrecognitionfromeditorsandreviewers.
[D]hasbeenfrequentlyquotedbypeerscientists.
34.AlbertSzent-Gyorgyiwouldmostlikelyagreethat
[A]scientificclaimswillsurvivechallenges.
[B]discoveriestodayinspirefutureresearch.
[C]effortstomakediscoveriesarejustified.
[D]scientificworkcallsforacriticalmind.
35.Whichofthefollowingwouldbethebesttitleofthetest?
[A]NoveltyasanEngineofScientificDevelopment.
[B]CollectiveScrutinyinScientificDiscovery.
[C]EvolutionofCredibilityinDoingScience.
[D]ChallengetoCredibilityattheGatetoScience.
Text4
IfthetradeunionistJimmyHoffawerealivetoday,hewouldprobablyrepresent
civilservant.WhenHoffh'sTeamsterswereintheirprimein1960,onlyoneinten
Americangovernmentworkersbelongedtoaunion;now36%do.In2009the
numberofunionistsinAmerica'spublicsectorpassedthatoftheirfellowmembers
intheprivatesector.InBritain,morethanhalfofpublic-sectorworkersbutonly
about15%ofprivate-sectoronesareunionized.
Therearethreereasonsfbrthepublic-sectorunions9thriving.First,theycan
shutthingsdownwithoutsufferingmuchinthewayofconsequences.Second,they
aremostlybrightandwell-educated.AquarterofAmerica'spublic-sectorworkers
haveauniversitydegree.Third,theynowdominateleft-of-centrepolitics.Someof
theirtiesgobackalongway.Britain'sLaborParty,asitsnameimplies,haslong
beenassociatedwithtradeunionism.Itscurrentleader,EdMiliband,oweshis
positiontovotesfrompublic-sectorunions.
Atthestateleveltheirinfluencecanbeevenmorefearsome.MarkBaldassare
ofthePublicPolicyInstituteofCaliforniapointsoutthatmuchofthestate'sbudget
ispatrolledbyunions.Theteachers5unionskeepaneyeonschools,theCCPOAon
prisonsandavarietyoflaborgroupsonhealthcare.
Inmanyrichcountriesaveragewagesinthestatesectorarehigherthaninthe
privateone.Buttherealgainscomeinbenefitsandworkpractices.Politicianshave
repeatedly“backloaded“public-sectorpaydeals,keepingthepayincreasesmodest
butaddingtoholidaysandespeciallypensionsthatarealreadygenerous.
Reformhasbeenvigorouslyopposed,perhapsmostegregiouslyineducation,
wherecharterschools,academiesandmeritpayallfaceddrawn-outbattles.Even
thoughthereisplentyofevidencethatthequalityoftheteachersisthemost
importantvariable,teachers9unionshavefoughtagainstgettingridofbadonesand
promotinggoodones.
Asthecosttoeveryoneelsehasbecomeclearer,politicianshavebegunto
clampdown.InWisconsintheunionshaveralliedthousandsofsupportersagainst
ScottWalker,thehardlineRepublicangovernor.Butmanywithinthepublicsector
sufferunderthecurrentsystem,too.
JohnDonahueatHarvard'sKennedySchoolpointsoutthatthenormsofculture
inWesterncivilservicessuitthosewhowanttostayputbutisbadforhighachievers.
TheonlyAmericanpublic-sectorworkerswhoearnwellabove$250,000ayearare
universitysportscoachesandthepresidentoftheUnitedStates.Bankers9fatpay
packetshaveattractedmuchcriticism,butapublic-sectorsystemthatdoesnot
rewardhighachieversmaybeamuchbiggerproblemforAmerica.
36.Itcanbelearnedfromthefirstparagraphthat
[A]Teamstersstillhavealargebodyofmembers.
[B]JimmyHoffausedtoworkasacivilservant.
[C]unionshaveenlargedtheirpublic-sectormembership.
[D]thegovernmenthasimproveditsrelationshipwithunionists.
37.WhichofthefollowingistrueofParagraph2?
[A]Public-sectorunionsareprudentintakingactions.
[B]Educationisrequiredforpublic-sectorunionmembership.
[C]LaborPartyhaslongbeenfightingagainstpublic-sectorunions.
[D]Public-sectorunionsseldomgetintroublefortheiractions.
38.ItcanbelearnedfromParagraph4thattheincomeinthestatesectoris
[A]illegallysecured.
[B]indirectlyaugmented.
[C]excessivelyincreased.
[D]fairlyadjusted.
39.TheexampleoftheunionsinWisconsinshowsthatunions
[A]oftenrunagainstthecurrentpoliticalsystem.
[B]canchangepeople'spoliticalattitudes.
[C]maybeabarriertopublic-sectorreforms.
[D]aredominantinthegovernment.
40.JohnDonahue'sattitudetowardsthepublic-sectorsystemisoneof
[A]disapprovaL
[B]appreciation.
[C]tolerance.
[D]indifference.
PartB
Directions:
Inthefollowingtext,somesentenceshavebeenremoved.ForQuestions41-45,
choosethemostsuitableonefromthelistA-Gtofitintoeachofthenumbered
blanks.Therearetwoextrachoices,whichdonotfitinanyoftheblanks.Markyour
answersonANSWERSHEET1.(10points)
Thinkofthosefleetingmomentswhenyoulookoutofanaeroplanewindow
andrealisethatyouareflying,higherthanabird.Nowthinkofyourlaptop,thinner
thanabrown-paperenvelope,oryourcellphoneinthepalmofyourhand.Takea
momentortwotowonderatthosemarvels.Youaretheluckyinheritorofadream
cometrue.
Thesecondhalfofthe20thcenturysawacollectionofgeniuses,warriors,
entrepreneursandvisionarieslabourtocreateafabulousmachinethatcouldfunction
asatypewriterandprintingpress,studioandtheatre,paintbrushandgallery,piano
andradio,themailaswellasthemailcarrier.(41)
Thenetworkedcomputerisanamazingdevice,thefirstmediamachinethat
servesasthemodeofproduction,meansofdistribution,siteofreception,andplace
ofpraiseandcritique.Thecomputeristhe21stcentury'sculturemachine.
Butforallthereasonstherearetocelebratethecomputer,wemustalsotread
withcaution.(42)1callitasecretwarfortworeasons.First,mostpeopledonot
realisethattherearestrongcommercialagendasatworktokeeptheminpassive
consumptionmode.Second,themajorityofpeoplewhousenetworkedcomputersto
uploadarenotevenawareofthesignificanceofwhattheyaredoing.
Allanimalsdownload,butonlyafewupload.Beaversbuilddamsandbirds
makenests.Yetforthemostpart,theanimalkingdommovesthroughtheworld
downloading.Humansareuniqueintheircapacitytonotonlymaketoolsbutthen
turnaroundandusethemtocreatesuperfluousmaterialgoods-paintings,sculpture
andarchitecture-andsuperfluousexperiences-music,literature,religionand
philosophy.(43)
Forallthepossibilitiesofournewculturemachines,mostpeoplearestillstuck
indownloadmode.Evenaftertheadventofwidespreadsocialmedia,apyramidof
productionremains,withasmallnumberofpeopleuploadingmaterial,aslightly
largergroupcommentingonormodifyingthatcontent,andahugepercentage
remainingcontenttojustconsume.(44)
Televisionisaone-waytapflowingintoourhomes.Thehardesttaskthat
televisionasksofanyoneistoturnthepoweroffafterhehasturnediton.
(45)
Whatcountsasmeaningfuluploading?Mydefinitionrevolvesaroundthe
conceptof"stickiness0-creationsandexperiencestowhichothersadhere.
[A]Ofcourse,itispreciselythesesuperfluousthingsthatdefinehumanculture
andultimatelywhatitistobehuman.Downloadingandconsumingculturerequires
greatskills,butfailingtomovebeyonddownloadingistostriponeselfofadefining
constituentofhumanity.
[B]Applicationslike,whichallowuserstocombinepictures,words
andothermediaincreativewaysandthensharethem,havethepotentialtoadd
stickinessbyamusing,entertainingandenlighteningothers.
[C]Notonlydidtheydevelopsuchadevicebutbytheturnofthemillennium
theyhadalsomanagedtoembeditinaworldwidesystemaccessedbybillionsof
peopleeveryday.
[D]Thisisbecausethenetworkedcomputerhassparkedasecretwarbetween
downloadinganduploading-betweenpassiveconsumptionandactivecreation-
whoseoutcomewillshapeourcollectivefutureinwayswecanonlybeginto
imagine.
[E]Thechallengethecomputermountstotelevisionthusbearslittlesimilarity
tooneformatbeingreplacedbyanotherinthemannerofrecordplayersbeing
replacedbyCDplayers.
[F]Onereasonforthepersistenceofthispyramidofproductionisthatforthe
pasthalf-century,muchoftheworld'smediaculturehasbeendefinedbyasingle
medium-television-andtelevisionisdefinedbydownloading.
[G]Thenetworkedcomputeroffersthefirstchancein50yearstoreversethe
flow,toencouragethoughtfuldownloadingand,evenmoreimportantly,meaningful
uploading.
PartC
Directions:
Readthefollowingtextcarefullyandthentranslatetheunderlinedsegments
intoChinese.YourtranslationshouldbewrittenclearlyonANSWERSHEET2.(10
points)
SincethedaysofAristotle,asearchforuniversalprincipleshascharacterized
thescientificenterprise.Insomeways,thisquestforcommonalitiesdefinesscience.
Newton'slawsofmotionandDarwinianevolutioneachbindahostofdifferent
phenomenaintoasingleexplicatoryframework.
(46)Inphysics,oneapproachtakesthisimpulseforunificationtoitsextreme,
andseeksatheoryofeverything一asinglegenerativeequationforallwesee.Itis
becominglessclear,however,thatsuchatheorywouldbeasimplification,giventhe
dimensionsanduniversesthatitmightentail,nonetheless,unificationofsorts
remainsamajorgoal.
Thistendencyinthenaturalscienceshaslongbeenevidentinthesocial
sciencestoo.(47)Here,Darwinismseemstoofferjustificationforitallhumansshare
commonoriginsitseemsreasonabletosupposethatculturaldiversitycouldalsobe
tracedtomoreconstrainedbeginnings.Justasthebewilderingvarietyofhuman
courtshipritualsmightallbeconsideredformsofsexualselection,perhapsthe
world'slanguages,music,socialandreligiouscustomsandevenhistoryare
governedbyuniversalfeatures.(48)Tofilteroutwhatisuniquefromwhatisshared
mightenableustounderstandhowcomplexculturalbehavioraroseandwhatguides
itinevolutionaryorcognitiveterms.
That,atleast,isthehope.Butacomparativestudyoflinguistictraitspublished
onlinetodaysuppliesarealitycheck.RussellGrayattheUniversityofAucklandand
hiscolleaguesconsidertheevolutionofgrammarsinthelightoftwoprevious
attemptstofinduniversalityinlanguage.
ThemostfamousoftheseeffortswasinitiatedbyNoamChomsky,who
suggestedthathumansarebomwithaninnatelanguage——acquisitioncapacitythat
dictatesauniversalgrammar.Afewgenerativerulesarethensufficienttounfoldthe
entirefundamentalstructureofalanguage,whichiswhychildrencanlearnitso
quickly.
(49)Thesecond,byJoshuaGreenberg,takesamoreempiricalapproachto
universalityidentifyingtraits(particularlyinwordorder)sharedbymanylanguage
whichareconsideredtorepresentbiasesthatresultfromcognitiveconstraints
Grayandhiscolleagueshaveputthemtothetestbyexaminingfourfamily
treesthatbetweenthemrepresentmorethan2,000languages.(50)Chomsky,s
grammarshouldshowpatternsoflanguagechangethatareindependentofthefamily
treeorthepathwaytrackedthroughit.WhereasGreenbergianuniversalitypredicts
strongco-dependenciesbetweenparticulartypesofword-orderrelations.Neitherof
thesepatternsisborneoutbytheanalysis,suggestingthatthestructuresofthe
languagesarelireage-specificandnotgovernedbyuniversals
[NxtPage]
SectionIIIWriting
PartA
51.Directions:
Someinternationalsstudentsarecomingtoyouruniversity.Writetheman
emailinthenameoftheStudents9Unionto
1)extendyourwelcomeand
2)providesomesuggestionsfortheircampuslifehere.
Youshouldwriteabout100wordsonANSWERSHEET2.Donotsignyour
nameattheendoftheletter.Use
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