英语语言学高级教程

SyllabusfortheCourse:Linguistics

l.TheStudyofLinguisticsandLanguage

2.Phonetics

3.Phonology

4.Morphology

5.Syntax

6.Semantics

7.Pragmatics

8.LinguisticComparison

9.Language,SocietyandCulture

10.Psycholinguitics

11.Stylistics

12.SecondLanguageAcquisition

13.LinguisticsandSecondlanguageteaching

14.Modernlinguisticschoolsandtheories

Textbook:

HuZhuanglinetal2002Linguistics:

AnAdvancedCourseBookPeking

UniversityPress

References:

Richards,JackC.etal.1997Longman

DictionaryofLanguageTeachingandApplied

LinguisticsLongman

Radford,etal.2000.Introductionto

Linguistics.外语教学与研究出版社

Robins,R.H2000GeneralLinguistics:An

introductorySurvey.外语教学与研究出版

社

Halliday,M.A.K1985.AnIntroductionto

FunctionalGrammar.EdwardArnold.

Leech,G.N.1981Semantics.Penguin

Palmer,F.R.1981.Semantics.Cambridge

UniversityPress.

Yule,George1997PragmaticsOxford

UniversityPress

Sapier,E.1964.Culture,Languageand

Personality.UniversityofcaliforniaPress

Wardhaugh,Ronald.1989AnIntroduction

toSociolinguisticsBasilBlackwell

Ellis,R1985UnderstandingSecond

LanguageAcquisitionOxfordUniversity

Press

霍凯特（Hockett）索振羽叶蜚声译1990

《现代语言学教程》北京大学出版社

苓麒祥1988《语言学史概要》北京大

学出版社

刘润清1999《西方语言学流派》外语

教学与研究出版社

许嘉璐等1996《中国语言学现状与展望》

外语教学与研究出版社

王钢1992《普通语言学基础》湖南

教育出版社

何自然1992《语用学概论》湖南教育出

版社

黄国文1992《语篇分析概要》湖南教育

出版社

桂诗春1992《应用语言学》湖南教育出

版社

Lecturer:TianJinping

PeriodofLearning:16weeks

Evaluation:Studentswillbeaskedtotake

partinatestandwriteashortpaperonany

topicoflinguistics

ChapterOneTheStudyoflinguistics

1.WhyStudyLinguisticsandWhatis

Linguistics

Linguisticscanbedefinedasthe

scientific(systematic)studyoflanguage

(languagesofallhumansociety).Ittriesto

answerthebasicquestions“Whatis

language?”,Howdoeslanguagework?,It

probesintovariousaspectsoftheproblems

suchaswhatdoalllanguageshaveincommon

(thenatureoflanguage);whatrangeof

variationisfoundamonglanguages

(comparativestudyoflanguage);whydo

languageschange(historicstudyoflanguage);

Towhatextentaresocialclassdifference

reflectedinlanguages(socio-linguistics);how

doesachildlearntospeak(language

acquisition—FlandF2)andsoon.

2.1slinguisticsascience?

Basedonsystematicinvestigationofdata,

conductedwithreferencetosomegeneral

theoryoflanguagestructure.Linguistics

seekstodescribe,explainandanalyse

language.

1)exhaustiveness2)consistency3)

economy4)objectivity

3.OriginTheoriginoflanguage

。Thedivine-origintheory

。Theinventiontheory

。Theevolutionarytheory

4.WhatisLanguageandDesignFeaturesof

Language

*Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocal

symbolsusedforhumancommunication.

。Arbitrariness

。Duality

。Productivity(creativity)

。Displacement

。Culturaltransmission

。Interchangeability

5.PerspectivesofLanguageStudies

。Languageasinnatehumanknowledge

。Languageasfixedcode

❖Languageasasystem

❖LanguageasInteraction

6.TheoriesoftheFunctionsofLanguage

。Jakobson'sClassification

1).Referentialfunction

2).Emotivefunction

3).Poeticfunction

4).Conativefunction

5).Phaticfunction

6).Metalingualfunction

♦Halliday'stheoryofMetafunctions

1).Ideationalfunction

2).Interpersonalfunction

3).Textualfunction

7.Functionsoflanguage

。Referentialfuction

。Interpersonalfunction

。Performativefunction

*Emotivefunction

。Phaticfunction

。Recreationalfunction

。Metalingualfunction

8.Somebasicdistinctionsinlinguistics

OGeneralvs.particular

*Theoreticalvs.applied

。Speechvs.writing

。Descriptivevs.prescriptive

。Synchronicvs.diachronic

。Languevs.parole

*Competencevs.performance

。Linguisticpotentialvs.actuallinguistic

behaviour

❖Eticvs.Emic

*Formalismvs.Functionalism

9.Majorbranchesofgenerallinguistics

♦Phonetics

♦Phonology

♦Morphology

♦Syntax

。Semantics

。Pragmatics

10.Applicationoflinguistics

。Linguisticsandlanguage

teaching--appliedlinguistics

。Linguisticsandsociety—socio-linguistics

*Linguisticsandliterature-stylistic

linguistics

。Linguisticsand

psychology---psycholinguistics

11.DataofLinguistics

12.StatusandProspectofLinguistics

a)Intheaspectofstudytarget

。Fromthestudyofmicrolinguisticsto

macrolinguistics

。Fromthestudyofstructureoflanguageto

functionandapplicationoflanguage

。Fromthestudyofasinglelanguageto

comparativestudyoflanguages

b)Intheaspectofstudymethod

。Fromdeductivetoinductive(empirical

study)andtodeductive-inductive

。Fromthestudyofasinglelevel,single

angle,staticstudytomulti-level,

multi-angle,dynamicstudy.

。Fromhandworktomachine

c)Intheaspectofstudypurpose

❖Fromnarrowtowide

*Fromdescriptiontoexplanation

。Fromtheoreticalexplorationtoapplied

value

ChapterThreeTheStudyofSpeech

Sounds

SectionI.Phonetics

l.ThedefinitionofPhonetics

。Phoneticsisthesciencewhichstudiesthe

production,transmissionandreceptionof

thesoundsofhumanspeech,andprovides

methodsfortheirdescription,

classificationandtranscription.

。Articulatoryphonetics

❖Acousticphonetics

。Auditoryphonetics

❖Phoneticsvs.phonology:Phonetics

studiestheconcretearticulatory,acoustic,

andauditorycharacteristicsofallthe

possiblesoundsofalllanguages(material

aspectsofsounds).Phonologyis

concernedwithsemanticallyrelevant

speechsounds.Phoneticsisnotrestricted

toaparticularlanguage.Itstudiesthe

speechsoundsinallhumanlanguage.

Phonologyistodescribethechoosingof

soundsinhuman'scommunication.It

studiesthesoundsystemofaparticular

languageorlanguagevariety.

2.Thevocalorgans

。Theinitiatoroftheair-stream-the

lung

❖Thevibrator——vocalcords

。Theresonator——theresonating

cavities

♦Thepharynx

♦Thenasalcavity

♦Theoralcavity:lips;teeth;alveolar

ridge;hardpalate;softpalate;uvula;

pharynx;epiglottis（会魇）

（o）esophagus（食道）

3.Segmentsanddivergences

。Segments

Anylinguisticunitinasequencewhich

maybeisolatedfromtherestofthe

sequence,asoundinanutteranceora

letterinawrittentext.

。Divergences---thechangingformor

variety---thedifferencebetweensound

andsymbol.Fish-ghotiVowelSplit

andVowelmerger.

4.Phonetictranscription

。Theinternationalphoneticalphabet(IPA)

asystemofsymbolsforrepresentingthe

pronunciationofsoundsinanylanguage

accordingtotheprinciplesofthe

InternationalPhoneticAssociation.This

systemconsistsoflettersanddiacritics.

SomelettersaretakenfromtheRoman

alphabetlike/p/,/e/,/n/andsomeare

specialsymbolssuchaso9.

❖Narrowandbroadtranscriptions

Broadtranscriptionhassuchsymbols,

eachofwhichrepresentsaphoneme.This

formoftranscriptionissuitablefor

teachingthepronunciationofaforeign

language.

Narrowtranscriptionhasmoreexact

symbolsanddiacritics,eachofwhichis

employedtorepresentthevariantofa

phoneme.

5.Classificationofsounds

。Consonants

♦Placesofarticulation

/Bilabial

/Labiodental

/Dental

/Alveolar

/Palato-alveolar(postalveolar)

/Palatal

/Velar

/Uvular

/Glottal

♦Mannersofarticulation

/Stop(plosive)

/Fricative

/Approximant

/Lateral

/Retroflex

/Affricates

/Nasal

♦Voicing

♦Classificationofconsonants

♦Vowels

♦Cardinalvowels

❖Cardinalvowel:

vowelinthecardinalvowelsysteminvented

byDanielJonesasameansofdescribingthe

vowelsinanylanguage.Thecardinalvowels

themselvesdonotbelongtoanyparticular

language,butarepossiblevowelstobeused

asreferencepoints.

♦Theclassificationofvowels

/Thepartofthetonguethatis

raised--front,center,back

/Theextenttowhichthetongue

rises---highmid(mid-highmid-low)

low

/Theshapeofthemouth-roundingor

spreading

/Oralornasalized

/Glidevowels

Diphthongs

Triphthongs

❖6.ReceivedPronunciation(RP):

Theform(variety)ofpronunciationthatis

usuallyheardineverydayspeechamong

theSouthernEnglishpeople,particularly

theLondonmiddleclass,orthespeech

spokenbyBBCannouncers,atuniversities

andpublicschools.RPisreadilyand

widelyunderstoodthroughouttheEnglish

speakingcountriesandgenerally

recommendedwhereEnglishistaughtand

learnedasaforeignlanguage.

7.GeneralAmericanPronunciation

SectionII.Phonology

1.Phonology:isthestudyofthesoundsystems

oflanguages.Phonologyisconcernedwith

thelinguisticpatterningofsoundsinhuman

languages,thatis,todeterminethe

phonologicalstructure--whichsoundunits

areusedandhowtheypattern.

/Toidentifythephonemesinacertain

language

/Tofindoutinwhatwaythephonemes

canbecombined

2.MinimalPair

Twoexpressions(wordsormorphemes)ofa

languagewithdifferentmeaningsthatare

distinguishedbyonlyonephoneme:fathervs.

mother;petvs.bet

3.Phoneme(distinctiveness):thesmallestunit

ofspeechsoundinalanguagewiththe

significantfunctiontodistinguishthe

meaningsandformsofwords.

。Allophone:variantsofaphoneme.

Allophonesofaphonemeisbasedontheir

distribution(complementarydistribution)

andtheirphoneticsimilarity:pot[ph]vs.

spot[p']lettervs.bottle

*Phone:smallestunitwhenautteranceis

segmented.

。Contrastivedistribution(phoneme)

。Complementarydistribution(phonetic

similarity)

4.Suprasegmentalphonology

❖Syllable

•Onset

•Peak

•Coda

♦Stress

•Wordstress

>Primarystress,secondarystress,weak

stresspronunciation,university

>Rhythmicalstress(doublestress)this

afternoon,anafternoonlesson;Heis

fourteen,Wehavefourteenboys;Welive

inBeijing,Beijingopera

Stressonsuffix:employeeengineer

ballooncartoon

>Compoundstress:blackboard

bluebookdarkroom'English

teacher(whoteachesEnglish)

Redcoatsvs.redcoatsblackbirdvs.

blackbird

Whitehousevs.WhiteHouse

greenbeltvs.greenbeltgreenhousevs.

greenhouse

bluejacketvs.bluejacket

•SentencestressStressingoncontent

words

Iwillgo.Idon'tgothere.

Flyingplanescanbedangerous.

JohnonlyphonedMarytoday.

。Pitch(tonetone-language)

。Intonation

。Liaisonandassimilation

Didyousay“announce"?Didyousay

“anounce”?

Thereisanicepearonthetable.Thereisa

nicepearonthetable.

Thatisanaim.Thatisaname.

Rhythm

。Tempo

。Pause

♦Range

ChapterThreeMorphology

1.Wordandthreesensesofword

/Aphysicallydefinableunit

/Thecommonfactorunderlyingasetof

forms

Lexeme:thesmallestunitinthemeaning

systemofalanguagethatcanbe

distinguishedfromothersimilarunits.

/Agrammaticalunit

2.Classificationofwords

/Variablewordsandinvariablewords

/Grammaticalwordsandlexicalwords

/Closed-classwordsandopen-classwords

/Wordclass(partofspeech)

令Particles(小品词)

令Auxiliaries(助词)

令Pro-form(pro-words)

令Determiners(pre-determiner;central

determiner;post-determiner)

3.Morphology

Morphology:studiestheinternalstructureof

words,andtherulesbywhichwordsare

formed.

4.Morpheme

Thesmallestmeaningfulunitinalanguage

5.Typesofmorphemes

/Freemorphemeandboundmorpheme

/Root,affixandstem

/Inflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix

6.InflectionalMorphologyvs.Lexical

(derivational)Morphology

7.Inflection

/Number

/Person,finitenessandaspect

/case

8.Morphemeandallomorph

9.Wordformation

/Compound

/Derivation

10.Lexicalchange

/Wordchange(Orthographiclevel)

令VideotapeAIDSSARSNATO

OPECAPECUNESCOH-bomb

hippies

令Invention:KodakCoke(coca-cola)nylon

令Blending:smogboatelmotel

brunchdigicom

令Abbreviation:adbikeplan

flu(influenza)fridgeairconrep

令Acronym:CIAWTOWHO

令Borrowing

/Phonologicalchange

/Morph-syntacticchange

令Morphologicalchange:doethgoeth

wee

令Syntacticalchange

/Semanticchange

ChapterFourSyntax

1.Definition:

2.Thetraditionalapproach

/Theclassificationofwordsintermof

partsofspeech

/Thefunctionsofwordsintermofthe

placesinasentence

/category:thecombinationofpartof

speechandfunction

A）nouncategories:

♦number——singularorplural

♦gender

♦case

nominative（主格）vocative（呼格）

accusative（宾格）genitive（属格）

dative（与格间接宾语）ablative（离

格）

B）verbcategories

tenseandaspect

C）concordandgovernment

3.Thestructuralapproach

♦Syntagmaticandparadigmaticrelations

♦Immediateconstituentanalysis

andexocentric

subordinatecoordinate

4.Thegenerativeapproach

1).SomebasicAssumption

令GenerativeGrammarandChomsky

■Chomsky--Americanlinguist,learnt

linguistics,maths,philosophyandlogic

whilelearningatcollegewhichlaida

greatfoundationforhislaterstudy.

■BackgroundforTG

♦Philosophicalbackground

♦Naturalscientificbackground

♦Linguisticbackground

令E-languageandI-language

■E-language——theexternal,observed

languagespecifiedinextension,asetof

sentencesanativespeakercoulduse.

■I-language——theinternal,individual

intensionallinguisticsystembywhich

E-languageisderived;thecognitive

systeminternalizedwithinhumanbrain.

■Theultimategoalofgenerativegrammar

istocharacterizethenatureofthe

internalizedlinguisticsystem.Notto

describethenaturallanguagebutto

explainlanguage.

令Criteriaofadequacy

■Descriptiveadequacy

■Explanatoryadequacy

令DevelopmentofGenerativeGrammar:

threetheoreticalmodels

■PhraseStructureRules

■LexicalProjection

■MinimalistApproach

2).PhraseStructureGrammar

Rule-Generativelanguage:

■E={a,b}Z*={a,b}*

■Palindromes:Otto—►IsawElba----S

aSa/bSbdeedlevel

令Contextfreephrasestructurerules

■G=(S,T,E,P)S=anarbitrarysentence

T=asetpfvariablesornonterminal

synbols;i.e.grammaticalcategoryE=a

setofterminalsymbols(lexicon)P=aset

ofproductions--grammaticalrules

♦1----krl=nonterminalr=terminal

ornon-terminalsymbols

•S->NPAuxVP

•NP—>DetN

•VP--AdvVNP

■DerivationTree;Nodes;motherand

daughternodes;sisternodes

DETNTV

Thebabypastsleep

令PhraseStructureRulesrefertothebase

componentofTGGrammar.Thebase

componentgeneratesthebasicsentence

patterns(deepstructure)ofalanguage;the

transformationalcomponenttransforms

theseintosentences.

Thebasecomponentconsistsofasetof

rules(phrasestructurerulesorrewrite

rules)andavocabularylist

令Transformation

■Phrasestructurerulesgeneratethe

KernelStringordeepstructureofa

sentence

■Transformationrules----surface

structure:Ruleswhichchangeabasic

syntacticstructure(basecomponent)into

asentence-likestructure

令Subcategorization

■Categorieslikenoun,verb,adjective,

adverbarenotadequatetogeneratea

correctsentence.Alltheinformationofa

wordshouldbetakenintoconsideration

——subcategorialproperties.

■Paris[+N,Proper]News[+N,-Proper,

-count,-Plural]

■put[+V,_NPPP]tell[+V,_NPNP,_

NPPP]one-placepredicate,two-place

predicate,three-placepredicate

die[NP]

hit[NPoNP1]

go[NPPP]

give[NPoNP1PP]

3).ProjectionfromLexicon

令Projectionprinciple

■Syntacticstructureisdeterminedbythe

idiosyncraticpropertiesofthelexical

item-----►Projectionprinciple:

representationateachsyntacticlevel(LF

(logicalform),D-andS-Structure)are

projectedfromthelexicon,inthatthey

observethesubcategorisationproperties

oflexicalitems.

■Lexicalitems(likeatomicelements,

calledprimes原始词)--k(to

formlargerunitsbasedonthelexical

informationofthewords)D-Structure

(applythetransformationalrules)-----kS-

Structure(phoneticformandlogicform)

■Twogroupsoflexicon:thelexical

categories(verb,adj,noun,proposition)

andfunctionalcategories(particles,aux,

determiners,pronoun)

令TheExtendedProjectionPrinciple

■Allclauseshaveasubject

■Lexicalrequirementsandstructural

requirementsmustbeuniformlysatisfied

atallsyntacticlevels.

A

/

NPA

VNP

JohnmarriedJane

令Adjunction

NP—

Y，NP

WeVeveryday

eat

VP

~~~

NP

-

人Nf

WeVeveryday

eatanapple

specifierheaccomplementadjunct(modifier)

令X-barschema

P

■ExtendingX-barSchematoFunctional

Categories(ICD)

令Theta-theory

■TheTheta-Theory,or。-Theory,is

devisedtodealwiththecomplicated

relationbetweenanargumentandthe

thematicrole(orsemanticfunction)the

argumentplaysinrelationtoits

predicate.

■0-Theorydealswiththeseveralaspects

assemanticrelation,logicrelation,

lexicalrelation,andsyntacticrelation.It

studiesthecomplicatedrelationamong

meaning,vocabularyandsyntactic

position.

■Johnopenedthedoor.Butnot*Thedoor

openedJohn.

■Categoryselection(c-selection)

Astheprojectionrulesshowsthat

“open"presupposetwoarguments:open

[NP_NP],italsopresupposeone

argument:open[NP—]Likethedoor

opened.

■Semanticselection(s-selection)

Averbdoesnotonlyselecttheright

syntacticcategorytofillanargument

position,italsoneedstoassigntheright

semanticfunctionorthematicrole,to

eachNPargumentittakes.

Eg.open[NP_]<Patient>Thedooropened.

Open[NPo_NP1]<Agent,Patient>John

openedthedoor.

■Theta-roles

Agent施事者Patient/theme承受者（受事者）

Experiencer感受者Recipient接受者Goal

受词/目的格

■0-Criterion:Eachargumentcanonlytakeone

thematic-roleasitsuniquevalue.

Theta-roleDefinitionExample

AgentDoerorinstigatorofThegirlkissedherdoll

someaction

Patient/themeEntityundergoingThestonerolleddownthehill

theeffectofsome

action

ExperiencerEntityexperiencingIlovethisgame

somepsychological

state

RecipientEntityreceivingorJohngaveMaryabook

possessingsome

entity

GoalEntitytowardsLet'sgohome

whichsomething

moves

令Movementandtrace

4）.TheMinimalistApproach

令Merge/Move

令Minimizingtobareessentials

令Checkingandcheckingtheory

令VPshells

♦Universalgrammar

♦Deepandsurfacestructure

♦Generativecomponent

♦Transformationalcomponent

5.Thefunctionalapproach

♦Functionalsentenceperspective

Themeandrheme

♦Systemic-functionalgrammar

ChomskyandTransformational-Generative

Grammar（乔姆斯基）

Chomsky'sTransformational-Generative

Grammarhasbeenregardedbysomelinguists

asarevolutioninlinguistics:

FourStagesofT-Ggrammar:

1)Logicalstructureoflinguistic

theory(1950-1965)——tomakelinguisticsa

science

。TheLogicalStructureofLinguistic

Theory(语言理论的逻辑结构)

♦SyntacticStructure(句法结构)

2)StandardTheory(1965-1970)(标准理论时

期)

❖AspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax(句法理

论若干问题)

3)ExtendedStandardTheory(扩充式---)

♦ReflectionsonLanguage(对语言的思

考)

4)Languageuniversalsanduniversalgrammar

MajorContribution:

1.Universalgrammar(languageacquisition

device)(innatenessorinnatisthypothesis)

。Atheorywhichclaimstoaccountfor

thegrammaticalcompetenceofevery

adultnomatterwhatlanguageheorshe

speaks.Itclaimsthateveryspeaker

knowsasetofprincipleswhichapplyto

alllanguagesandalsoasetofparameters

thatcanvaryfromonelanguageto

another,butonlywithincertainlimits.

。Innatisthypothesis:Childrenarebom

withtheabilitytospeak(LADlanguage

acquisitiondevice)——borninthemindat

birthratherthanfromtheenvironment

2.Deepstructureandsurfacestructure

Eachsentencewas(inthebeginningperiod)

seentohavetwolevelsofstructure.The

surfacestructureisthesyntacticstructure

ofthesentencewhichapersonspeaks,

hears.Thedeepstructureismuchmore

abstractandisconsideredtobeinthe

speaker'swriter'shearer'smind

Thenewspaperwasnotdeliveredtoday

(negative)someone(pasttense)deliverthe

newspapertoday(passive)

3.Phrasestructurerules

ThepartinT-GGrammardealingwith

syntaxisdividedintotwocomponents:the

basecomponentandthetransformational

component.Thebasecomponentgenerates

thebasicsentencepatternsofalanguage;

thetransformationalcomponenttransforms

theseintosentences.

Thebasecomponentconsistsofasetof

rules(phrasestructurerulesorrewrite

rules)andavocabularylist

s

NP/、VP

DETNT

V

Thebabypast

sleep

4.Transformationalrules

Ruleswhichchangeabasicsyntactic

structure(basecomponent)intoasentence­

likestructure

ChapterSixFunctionalSyntax

1.HistoricalviewonLanguage

ProtagorasPlatoAristotle

2.StudiesonFunctionofLanguage

PragueSchoolVilemMathesius

RomanJakobson

LondonSchool

令PragueSchool:

■Structural-functionalViewofLanguage

♦Emphasizingtheimportanceof

synchronicstudyoflanguagewhile

payingattentiontodiachronicstudy.

♦Languageisasystem,nota

combinationofisolatedphenomenon.

Understandingalanguagecomponent

involvesconsideringtherelationship

betweenthecomponents.

♦Languageisatoolfor

communication,atoolforthinking.

♦Toanalyzethefunctionoflanguage,

linguistsshouldtakebothwrittenform

andspokenformoflanguageinto

consideration.

■PhonemicContrast

Themostimportantcontributionto

linguisticsmadebyPragueSchoolisthe

distinctionbetweenPhoneticsand

Phonology.AccordingtoPragueSchool,a

phoneislikeparoleandaphonemeislike

langue.

令VilemMathesius(life-longChairmanofthe

Praguelinguistscircle)

■SubjectPredicationObject

Subject-predicaterelations

Object-predicaterelations

■Functionalsentenceperspective(句子的

实际切分；句子功能展示成份；句子功

能观)

♦句子功能展示成份简单地说，就是

用信息论的原理来分析话语或文句，

测量一句话的各个部分对全句意义

♦Atypeoflinguisticanalysis

associatedwiththePragueSchool

whichdescribeshowinformationis

distributedinsentences.FSPdeals

particularlywiththeeffectofthe

distributionofGiveninformationand

Newinformationindiscourse.The

knowninformation(thetheme)refers

totheinformationthatisknowntothe

readerorlistener.Therhemerefersto

informationthatisnew.

♦Threecomponentsanalysis

•ThemeTransitionRheme

♦Twocomponentsanalysis

•ThemeRheme

•Hehasfallenill

令FrantisekDanes(Czechlinguist)

■AThree-levelApproachtosyntax

♦Thegrammaticallevel

♦Thesemanticlevel

♦Theorganizationallevel

3.Halliday

令Ideational,Interpersonal,Textual

■Ideational

Ideationalfunction——istoconveynew

information,tocommunicateacontentthat

isunknowntothehearer;toreflectwhat

happensinthesubjectiveandobjective

world.——toorganizethespeaker'sor

writer'sexperienceoftherealorimaginary

world.

■Interpersonal

Interpersonalfunction——useoflanguage

toexpresssocialandpersonal

relations-thewaysthespeakerperformsa

speechact.Moodandmodalitycanrealize

thisfunction.Speechrolesarealso

reflectedthroughformsofaddress,speech

function.

■Textual

Textualfunction——anystretchofspoken

andwrittendiscourseismadeintoa

coherentandunifiedtextandmakealiving

messagedifferentfromarandomlistof

sentences.

令Transitivity

■Intraditionalgrammar,transitivityrefers

tothestateofbeingatransitiveverb——a

verbwhichtakesanobject

■Insystemic-functionalgrammar,

transitivityreferstoachoicebetweenthe

threemainprocessesthatcanbe

representedinasentence.Itisrelatedto

thechoiceofparticipantsandthechoice

ofcircumstancesandwhichrolesthe

participantshadintheprocessandhow

processes,participants,and

circumstancesarecombined.

■Ideationalfunctionoflanguage---

Languageenableshumanbeingstobuild

amentalpictureofreality,tomakesense

ofwhatgoesonaroundthemandinside

them.Thegrammaticalsystembywhich

thisisachievedistransitivity.The

transitivityconstruestheworldof

experienceintoamanageablesetof

processtypes.

■Threetypesofprocesses:

♦Materialprocess---Theprocessof

doing.

Asahumanbeing,wehavebothouter

andinnerexperience.Theouter

experienceisthatofactionsandevents:

thingshappen,andpeopleorotheractors

dothingsormakethem

happen.---materialprocess.Theboy

kickedtheball.

♦Mentalprocess---processofsensing

Theinnerexperience---akindofreplyof

theouter,recordingit,reactingtoit,

reflectingonit,anawarenessofourstate

ofbeing.

Themanlikedthenewhouse.

♦Relationalprocess-processofbeing

Welearntogeneralize,torelateone

fragmentofexperiencetoanother:this

thesameasthat,thisisakindofthe

other-processofclassifyingand

identifying.Thechildishomeless.

♦Behavioralprocess--physiological

andpsychologicalbehavior

Itreferstotheborderlinebetween

materialandmentalprocesses--those

thatrepresentoutermanifestationof

innerworkings,thea