针对妇女的性别暴力的经济成本（英）

Gender-basedviolenceThecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEuropeanUnionEuropeanInstituteforGenderEqualityThecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEuropeanUnionAcknowledgementsThisreportwaspreparedbyICFConsultingServicesLtdinclosecooperationwithEuropeanInstituteforGenderEquality(EIGE)staff,includingAgataSzypulska,CristinaFabreRosell,JurgitaPečiūrienė,LigiaNobregaandAdineSamadi.ThemainauthorsofthisreportwereMaleehaKisat,SimonadePaolis,ElberethPutsandKaterinaMantouvalou(ICFConsultingServicesLtd).TheindependentexpertswhocontributedtothisreportwereIoanaBorzaandDrPhilippaOlive.Manythankstoothercolleaguesfortheirintellectualcontributionsandadministrativesupport.EIGEwouldespeciallyliketothankDrElizabethVillagomez-Morales,whocontributedtothequalityassuranceofthisstudy.EuropeanInstituteforGenderEqualityTheEuropeanInstituteforGenderEquality(EIGE)isanautonomousbodyoftheEuropeanUnionestablishedtostrengthengenderequalityacrosstheEU.EqualitybetweenwomenandmenisafundamentalvalueoftheEUandEIGE’staskistomakethisarealityinEuropeandbeyond.ThisincludesbecomingaEuropeanknowledgecentreongenderequalityissues,supportinggendermainstreaminginallEUandMemberStatepolicies,andfightingdiscriminationbasedonsex.Tel.+37052157444Email:eige.sec@eige.europa.euhttp://www.eige.europa.eu/eurogender/eige.europa.eu/eurogenderhttp://eurogender.eige.europa.eu/company/eige/EuropeanInstituteforGenderEquality,EIGEGediminopr.16LT-01103VilniusLITHUANIALuxembourg:PublicationsOfficeoftheEuropeanUnion,2021PrintPDFISBN978-92-9482-920-7ISBN978-92-9482-921-4doi:10.2839/23187doi:10.2839/063244MH-09-21-238-EN-CMH-09-21-238-EN-N©EuropeanInstituteforGenderEquality,2021Photocredit:©NateeMeepian/SReproductionisauthorisedprovidedthesourceisacknowledged.Reuseisauthorisedprovidedthesourceisacknowledged,theoriginalmeaningisnotdistortedandEIGEisnotliableforanydamagecausedbythatuse.ThereusepolicyofEIGEisimplementedbyCommissionDecisionof12December2011onthereuseofCommissiondocuments(2011/833/EU).AbbreviationsAbbreviationsCSEWEIGECrimeSurveyforEnglandandWalesEuropeanInstituteforGenderEqualityGREVIOGroupofExpertsonActionagainstViolenceagainstWomenandDomesticViolenceLAALegalAidAgencyMHCLGNGOMinistryofHousing,CommunitiesandLocalGovernancenon-governmentalorganisationOECDONSOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopmentOfficeforNationalStatistics3Thecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEuropeanUnionContentsContentsAbbreviations35Executivesummary1.2.Introduction71.1.Structureofthisreport7Estimatingthecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEU–UKcasestudy2.1.Methodology882.2.UKcasestudy1122242.3.ExtrapolationtoEUMemberStates2.4.Conclusions3.Methodologiesforestimatingthecostsofgender-basedviolenceandviolenceagainstwomenandmen–criticalreview2525283.1.Methodologyoftheliteraturesearch3.2.Overviewoftheselectedstudies3.3.Comparisonofmethodologiesforestimatingthecostsofgender-basedviolenceorviolenceagainstwomenandmen294243503.4.Strengthsandlimitationsoftheselectedstudies3.5.ReflectionsandlessonslearnedReferences4EuropeanInstituteforGenderEqualityExecutivesummaryExecutivesummaryGender-basedviolenceisoneofthemostsevereformsofgenderinequalityanditremainsoneofthemostpervasivehumanrightsvio-lations,affectingwomendisproportionately.Gender-basedviolencenotonlycausespainandsufferingtothevictims,butalsoplaceslargecostsontheeconomyandsocietyasawhole.However,theextentandassociatedcostsofgender-basedviolence,encompass-inglosteconomicoutput,publicspendingonhealth,legal,socialandspecialisedservicestomitigateharms,andpersonalimpactsonvic-tims,arerarelyseen.ExtrapolatingtheUKcasestudyresultstotheEUbyadjustingtheestimatestothepopulationsizeofeachEUMemberState,theestimatedcostofgender-basedviolenceagainstwomenintheEU-27wasmorethanEUR290billion(1),representing79%ofallcostsofgender-basedviolenceagainstbothwomenandmen.Theesti-matedcostofintimatepartnerviolenceagainstwomenintheEU-27wasnearlyEUR152bil-lion(2),representing87%ofallcostsofintimatepartnerviolenceagainstbothwomenandmen.Aswellasthecostestimates,thisreportpro-videsacriticalassessmentofstudiescarriedoutwithintheEUtoestimatethecostsofgender-basedandintimatepartnerviolencethathavebeenpublishedsinceEIGE’s2014study.Basedonanin-depthassessmentofthecost-ingmethodologiesappliedinrecentliterature,thisreviewprovidesasetoflessonslearnedforfuturecostingstudiesatEuropeanlevel,aswellasrecommendationsforestimatingthecostsofgender-basedviolenceatMemberStateandEUlevels.Inthiscontext,thisstudyprovidesupdatedesti-matesofthecostsofgender-basedandintimatepartnerviolenceintheEuropeanUnion.Theseupdatedestimatesarebasedonthe2014Euro-peanInstituteforGenderEquality(EIGE)reportentitledEstimatingthecostsofgender-basedvio-lenceintheEuropeanUnion.ThemethodusedtocalculatethesecostsinvolvedcalculatingestimatesfortheUnitedKingdomandextrap-olatingtheresultstoEUMemberStates.TheUnitedKingdomwaschosenasacasestudyasrelevantinformationwasavailabletocalculatethesecosts.Thereviewnotedthatgender-basedviolenceisacomplexproblemthatcanaffectthelivesofthevictims,thoseclosetothemandsocietyasawhole,bothdirectlyandindirectly,makingitparticularlydifficulttocapturethefullextentoftheeffectsofviolenceincostingstudies.Therefore,carefulconceptualisationisrequiredtofullyunderstandthelandscapeoftheagentsinvolved(individualsandorganisations),aswellasthecoststheyincur.Becauseoftheabsenceofcomprehensivedataforcomparablecostestimates,thefinalesti-mateswereextrapolatedtoEUMemberStatesbyadjustingthetotalcostsofgender-basedandintimatepartnerviolencetotherelativepopulationsizeoftheUnitedKingdomandeachMemberState.Themethodofextrapo-latingcostsfromtheUnitedKingdombasedonpopulationsizesalonehassomelimitationsandtheseshouldbeconsideredwheninter-pretingthecostestimates.Potentialdiffer-encesinsurvey-basedprevalenceandreport-ingratesincrimesurveysorpolicedataacrossMemberStatesaswellasdifferencesinservicecostsandexpendituredataneedtobetakenintoaccount.ThereviewalsohighlightedtheneedtostrengthennationalandEUdatacollectionontheextentofgender-basedviolenceanditscostsandtheuseofservicesasaresultofgender-basedviolence,includingcomprehen-siveadministrativedatafrompublicservicesandpopulationsurveys.Becauseofculturalandinstitutionalfactorssuchasbarrierstore-(1)Thefullestimatedcostofgender-basedviolenceagainstwomenintheEUwasEUR290309795927.2()ThefullestimatedcostofintimatepartnerviolenceagainstwomenintheEUwasEUR151950791341.5Thecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEuropeanUnionExecutivesummaryporting,theuseofarangeofvaluesordifferentdatasourcesisrecommendedtoaddressuncer-taintiesintheextentofgender-basedviolenceinacountry.Forexample,uncertaintiescanbeaddressedthroughtheuseofconfidenceinter-vals,byusingbothprevalenceandincidencedataandmultiplesourcesofdata.Moreover,itisrecommendedthatsensitivityanalysesarecarriedouttoassesstherobustnessoftheme-thodologyusedinordertoquantifyhowuncer-taintiesregardingdifferentinputscanimpactfinalcostestimates.Inaddition,followinguponexistingcostestimatesofgender-basedvio-lencecanfurtheradvancepolicymaking.Theexamplesprovidedinthisreportcanalsosup-portpolicymakersandrelevantinstitutionsintheireffortstocombatgender-basedviolenceandassessthegapsbetweenserviceuseandthebudgetsallocatedtogender-basedvio-lencepolicies,measuresandserviceprovision.Theycanalsobeusedtodevelopamacroeco-nomicmodelformeasuringtotaloutputgainsorlossestotheeconomyandtomonitortheevolutionofserviceprovisionandtheextentofgender-basedviolencetoinformfuturecostingstudies.6EuropeanInstituteforGenderEquality1.Introduction1.IntroductionGender-basedviolenceisawidespreadphenom-enonintheEuropeanUnion,affectingwomendisproportionally–in2012,oneinthreewomenaged15oroverexperiencedphysicaland/orsexualviolence(3).Althoughapricecannotbeputonwomen’slivesandsuffering,estimatingthelosteconomicoutputandpublicspendingonhealth,legal,socialandspecialisedserviceswithregardtogender-basedviolencecancre-ateabetterunderstandingoftheextentandassociatedcostsofthisphenomenon.AttachingamonetaryvaluetotheissuecanalsofurthersupportbothMemberStatesandtheEUinmak-inginformeddecisionsregardingresourceallo-cationacrossdifferentpolicyareas(EIGE,2014).Analysisoftheeconomiccostsofgender-basedviolencemayalsoshowthecostofinactionandlackoffinancialprioritisation.petratorsharesorhassharedthesameresi-dencewiththevictim’(4).Thebroadercategoryofgender-basedviolenceadditionallyincludesviolencefromotherfamilyandhouseholdmem-bersandformsofgender-basedviolencethatareperpetratedbynon-intimatepartnersandnon-householdmembers(EIGE,2014).ThisbroadercategoryofviolenceagainstwomenisdefinedbytheUNas‘anyactofgender-basedviolencethatresultsin,orislikelytoresultin,physical,sexualorpsychologicalharmorsuf-feringtowomen,includingthreatsofsuchacts,coercionorarbitrarydeprivationofliberty,whetheroccurringinpublicorinprivatelife’(5).1.1.StructureofthisreportThisreportfocusesonupdatingestimatesofthecostsofgender-basedandintimatepart-nerviolenceintheUnitedKingdomin2019.TheseestimatesarethenextrapolatedfromtheUnitedKingdomtoEUMemberStates.Thisupdatedstudyonthecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEUisaccompaniedbyacriticalreviewofstudiescarriedoutwithintheEUtoestimatethecostsofgender-basedandintim-atepartnerviolencethathavebeenpublishedsinceEIGE’s2014study.Thisreviewprovidesasetoflessonslearnedforfuturecostingstud-iesatEuropeanlevelandrecommendationsforestimatingthecostsofgender-basedviolenceatMemberStateandEUlevels.Acknowledgingtheimportanceofpreventingandcombatinggender-basedviolenceintheEU,thisstudyestimatesthecostsofgender-basedviolence,usingexistingmethodologyfromtheEuropeanInstituteforGenderEquality’s(EIGE)2014studyentitledEstimatingthecostsofgen-der-basedviolenceintheEuropeanUnion(EIGE,2014).Asinthepreviousstudy,thisreportfocusesonintimatepartnerviolenceasasub-setofgender-basedviolence.IntimatepartnerviolenceisdefinedbytheCouncilofEuropeas‘allactsofphysical,sexual,psychologicaloreconomicviolencebetweenformerorcurrentspousesorpartners,whetherornottheper-(((3)https://fra.europa.eu/en/data-and-maps/violence-against-women-survey/survey-information/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/210/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/ViolenceAgainstWomen.aspx4))57Thecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEuropeanUnion2.Estimatingthecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEU–UKcasestudy2.Estimatingthecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEU–UKcasestudy2.1.Methodologycostsincludethoserelatedtopolicetimespenton‘no-crimeincidents’(8)andutilisationoftheciviljusticesystem,socialwelfaresystemandspecialisedservices,andpersonalcosts.Thesecostestimateswerederivedfromadditionaldatasourcesincludinglegalaidstatistics,fam-ilycourtstatistics,localauthorityexpendituresandOfficeforNationalStatistics(ONS)divorcestatistics.FollowingEIGE’s2014study,theUKcasestudyadherestoHomeOfficemethodologytomeas-urethecostsofcrime,includinglosteconomicoutput,utilisationofthehealthsystemandcriminaljusticesystemandphysicalandemo-tionalimpactsonvictims.In2018,theHomeOfficepublishedthesecondeditionofTheEco-nomicandSocialCostsofCrime(Heeksetal.,2018),whichprovidesupdatedestimatesforthe‘unitcosts’ofcrime.Toobtainupdatedcostestimatesofgender-basedandintimatepartnerviolencefortheUnitedKingdom,theunitcostofcrimeobtainedfromtheHomeOfficereportwasadjustedforinflationtoreflect2019prices,convertedfrompoundssterlingtoeurobasedonthemid-2019conversionrateandthenmulti-pliedbythenumberofincidentsofcrimeundereachtypeofcrimecategory.Informationontheincidenceofcrimewasprimarilyderivedfromthe2019/2020CrimeSurveyforEnglandandWales(CSEW)(6)andhomicidestatistics(7)forEnglandandWales,ScotlandandNorthernIre-land.ThemethodologypresentedheredescribesthekeyaspectsoftheapproachusedtoobtainthecostestimatesfortheUnitedKingdomandextrapolatethemtoEUMemberStates.Acom-prehensiveaccount,includingthestep-by-stepapproachusedanddetailsofdatalimitations,isprovidedinaseparatetechnicalreport.2.1.1.UpdatestothemethodologyusedintheUKcasestudyRelevanttothiscasestudy,themainupdatetotheHomeOfficemethodologywastheavailabil-ityoftheunitcostofcrimebycrimeclassifica-tion.InEIGE’s2014study,unitcostsofviolentincidentswereavailablefromtheHomeOfficeforthefollowingcrimeclassifications:homicide,wounding,commonassaultandsexualviolence.Atthetimeofthepresentcasestudy,theCSEWcollecteddataonviolentcrimeusingadiffer-InadditiontotheHomeOfficemethodology,othertypesofcoststhatareknowntobere-latedtogender-basedandintimatepartnerviolenceweremeasuredbyapplyingtheme-thodologiesusedinEIGE’s2014study.These(6).uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/bulletins/crimeinenglandandwales/yearending-march2020(7)EnglandandWaleshomicidedata,Tables11aand11b(.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjus-tice/datasets/appendixtableshomicideinenglandandwales);Scotlandhomicidedata,Table8(.scot/publications/homicide-scotland-2019-2020/pages/3/#:~:text=The%20number%20of%20homicide%20cases,which%20comparable%20data%20are%20available);NorthernIrelandhomicidedata,‘Domesticabuseannualtrends’,Table3.9(https://www.psni.police.uk/inside-psni/Statistics/domestic-abuse-statistics/).(8)‘Nocrime’isacategoryofpoliceworkthatcoverscasesinwhichthepolicehavebeencalledtorespondtoanincidentandtheincidentisdeemednottomeetthelegalthresholdforacriminaloffence.InEnglandandWales,thereweremorethan1millioncallstothepolicein2012/2013fordomesticabuse-relatedincidentsandonly269700incidentswererecordedasdomesticviolence-relatedcrimes(HMIC,2014).Thesedatashowthat‘no-crimeincidents’makeupasubstantialcomponentofpoliceactivity(anditisalsoimportanttonotethatmanyeventsareprobablymisclassified)(EIGE,2014).8EuropeanInstituteforGenderEquality2.Estimatingthecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEU–UKcasestudyentsetofclassifications.CorrespondingtotheWales,ScotlandandNorthernIreland.WhendatafromEnglandandWalesareextrapolatedtotheUnitedKingdomusingapopulation-basedmulti-plier,thecostestimatesmightbebiasedtowardscostsinEnglandandWalesasthecalculationsdonotaccountforpotentialdifferencesincostsofserviceprovisionbetweenEnglandandWalesandtherestoftheUnitedKingdom.updatestocrimeclassificationsintheCSEW,the2018editionoftheHomeOfficemethodologyprovidedunitcostssubdividedbythefollowingcrimeclassifications:homicide,violencewithinjury,violencewithoutinjury,rapeandothersexualoffences.Themethodologiesappliedtoestimatethecostsoftheutilisationoftheciviljusticesys-tem,self-fundedlegalcostsandthecostsofhomelessnessprevention(previouslysanctuaryschemes)wereupdatedbasedontheavailabil-ityofdataandexaminationofthecurrentpolicycontextintheUnitedKingdom.Thesechangesaredetailedinthetechnicalreport.Themostsignificantchangefromthe2014me-thodologyconcernstheincidencedata.Thepre-viousstudyreliedonmicrodatafromtheCSEW,whereasthisupdatereliesonpubliclyavailableinformationpublishedbytheONS.Often,thispublishedinformationdidnotincludethere-quiredbreakdownofthedata(e.g.bysex,byvictim–perpetratorrelationship).Therefore,weusedauxiliaryinformationtomakeassumptionsaboutthedataandadjustedestimatesbasedontheseassumptions.Themainassumptionsareasfollowsandarediscussedindetailinthetechnicalreport.2.1.2.DataupdatesintheUKcasestudyThiscasestudyusedacombinationofupdatedsurveydataonvictimsofcrimeandcostesti-matesbasedonadministrativedatafromthesamestatisticalsourcesasinEIGE’s2014studywhereavailable;alternativedatasourceswithmorerecentorcompletedatawhereappro-priate;andoldindicatorswhereappropriatealternativedatasourceswerenotavailable.Allcostswereadjustedforinflationto2019levelsinaccordancewiththe2014methodology.Moreover,inaccordancewiththe2014method-ology,iftherequireddatawerenotavailablefortheUnitedKingdom,dataforthecostestimateswereextrapolatedtotheUnitedKingdomusingmultipliersbasedonrelativepopulationsizes(e.g.fromEnglandandWalestotheUnitedKing-dom).ThemethodforextrapolatingcoststotheUnitedKingdombasedonpopulationsizesalonehassomelimitations,whichshouldbeconsideredwheninterpretingthecostesti-mates.BecauseofthedevolutionofhealthandsocialcareservicesandjusticeandpolicingintheUnitedKingdom(9),publicservicesystemsandexpendituresmayvaryacrossEngland,1.PublishedcrimestatisticsfromtheCSEWprovideestimatesofthenumberofvictimsofcrimeratherthanthenumberofincidentsofcrime.InordertofollowthemethodologyusedinEIGE’s2014studyandtheHomeOfficemethodology,transformationofthedatawasrequiredtoestimatethenumberofincidentsofcrimeusingvictim-baseddata.Thiswascarriedoutbyusinginformationontheproportionofvictimsofdomesticvio-lencewhosaidtheywerevictimsonce(oneincident:66%ofvictims),twotofourtimes(amedianofthreeincidents:27%ofvictims)orfiveormoretimes((atleast)fiveincidents:7%ofvictims)(10).Thenumberofvictimswasthenscaledupbythisinformationtoesti-matethenumberofincidents.Alimitationofthisapproachisthatitdoesnotdistinguishbetweenmenandwomenvictimsofrepeatviolencebutassumesthesamerateforboth.Italsoassumesthatthesameratesapplyfor(9).uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/770709/DevolutionFactsheet.pdf(10)TableD7foryearendingMarch2020in‘CrimeinEnglandandWales:Annualtrendanddemographictables’(.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/datasets/crimeinenglandandwalesannualtrendanddemographictables).9Thecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEuropeanUnion2.Estimatingthecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEU–UKcasestudyvictimsofdomesticviolenceandvictimsofintimatepartnerviolence.costsofgender-basedandintimatepartnervio-lence(themselvesextrapolatedfromEnglandandWalesforsomeofthedata)wereadjustedtotherelativepopulationsizesoftheUnitedKingdomandeachMemberState,inaccord-ancewiththe2014methodology.Forexample,thepopulationofBelgiumwasestimatedtobearound17.1%ofthepopulationoftheUnitedKingdomin2019;therefore,thetotalcostsofgender-basedviolenceandintimatepartnerviolenceintheUnitedKingdomweremultipliedby0.171toextrapolatethemtoBelgium.2.Nosurveydatawereavailableonrapebyvictim’sgenderregardlessofthevictim’srelationshiptotheperpetrator(althoughdataonpolice-recordedcrimeswereavaila-ble).ThisstudyusedinformationonrapebydomesticpartnersfromtheCSEW(domes-ticabusemodule)andappliedamultiplierobtainedfrompoliceadministrativedataontheproportionofrapesthatarereportedinadomesticabusecontexttoscaleupthenumberofvictimsofrape.Thelimitationofthisapproachisthatthisattributionreliesonrecordedoffencesanddoesnotconsiderinstancesinwhichoffencesarenotrecorded(e.g.womenandmenmaybelesslikelytoreportinstancesofdomesticrape,ordomesticrapeoverallmaybereportedlessfrequently).Extrapolationwasappliedbecauseoftheabsenceofcomprehensivedataprovidingcom-parablecostestimates.However,therearesev-erallimitationstothisapproach,whichshouldbeconsideredwheninterpretingthecostesti-matesinEUMemberStates.Extrapolationdoesnotconsiderpotentialdiffer-encesinsurvey-basedprevalenceratesacrossMemberStates,whichmeansthatthecostesti-matesdonotcaptureifsomeMemberStateshaveahigherprevalenceofgender-basedandintimatepartnerviolencethanothers.3.Nodatawereavailableonviolencewithinjuryandviolencewithoutinjurybyrelationshiptotheperpetratoralthoughthesedatawereavailablebygenderofthevictim.TheCSEWdataweredisaggregatedintointimatepart-neranddomesticviolenceusingmultipliersobtainedfrompoliceadministrativedataontheproportionsofviolentincidentsrecordedbyrelationshiptotheperpetrator,withoutdisaggregationbysex.Alimitationofthisapproachisthatthesexofthevictimswasnotconsidered;rather,thesameproportionsfordomesticandintimatepartnerviolencewereappliedtowomenandmen.Inaddition,thepolicedataonrecordedcrimedonotincludedatafromGreaterManchesterPoliceandthereforetheyunderestimaterecordedcrimesinEnglandandWales.Reportingratesforgender-basedandintimatepartnerviolenceincrimesurveysandpolicedatamayvarybetweencountriesdependingonawarenessoftheissueandinstitutionalandcul-turalbarrierstoreporting.ExtrapolationdoesnotquantifypotentialdifferencesinreportingratesandhowsuchdifferencesmayaffectthecostestimatesforEUMemberStates.Simi-larly,theinabilitytoaccessmicrodatafromtheCSEWrestrictedtheanalysistopubliclyavail-abledatafromtheONS.Toestimatethenum-bersofincidentsofgender-basedandintimatepartnerviolence,thisstudyuseddataontheprevalenceofgender-basedviolenceinEnglandandWalesintheyearendingMarch2020.Giventhatonepersoncanbeavictimmorethanonce,prevalenceisnotsufficienttoesti-matethecostsofgender-basedandintimatepartnerviolence,especiallyinthecaseofthelatter,whererepeatedincidentstendtobethe2.1.3.ExtrapolationtoEUMemberStatesToextrapolatethecostsofgender-basedandintimatepartnerviolenceintheUnitedKing-domin2019toEUMemberStates,thetotal10EuropeanInstituteforGenderEquality2.Estimatingthecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEU–UKcasestudynorm.Becauseoftheselimitations,thisstudyAnotherimportantlimitationofthepre-sentstudyrelatestotherelianceonexistingresearchtoestimatetheproportionofexpend-itureintheoverallpopulationresultingfromintimatepartnerviolence.Inparticular,someofthecostestimates(civillegalcostsandchildwelfarecosts)reliedonWalby’s(2004)esti-matesontheproportionofdivorcesresult-ingfromintimatepartnerviolenceandontheco-occurrenceofchildabuse/negligenceanddomesticviolence.Thesemultiplierswereesti-matedusingdatafrom2001orearlier.Assuch,usingthesemultipliersinthepresentstudymeantrelyingontheassumptionthattrendsinthepatternofdivorcesattributabletointimatepartnerviolenceandintheco-occurrenceofchildabuse/negligenceanddomesticviolencewereunchanged.Finally,assumptionsweremadeaboutwhattoincludeandwhatnottoincludeinsomeofthecategoriesassociatedwithintimatepartnerviolencebasedontheavailabledata.Forexample,inthecaseofchildwelfareexpenditure,toestimatetheproportionofchildreninneedbecauseofintimatepartnerviolence,thisstudyreliedonthenumberofchildrenreferredbecauseof‘abuseorneglect’.Thetechnicalreportofthisstudydetailsthemethodologicalchoicesandassumptionsmadeforeachcostestimate.transformedtheavailableprevalencedatatonumbersofincidentsusingestimatesfromtheCSEWonthepercentagesofthesamplewhoreportedthattheyhadbeenvictimisedonce,twotofourtimesorfiveormoretimes.How-ever,thisislikelytounderestimatetheactualnumbersofincidents,giventhatthevictimisa-tionrateswerecappedatfiveforrespondentswhoreportedthattheywerevictimisedfiveormoretimes.Moreover,thisextrapolationreliesonUKser-vicecostsandexpendituredataandthereforedoesnotcapturedifferencesbetweencountriesbasedonthetype,availabilityanduseofser-vices.PublicservicesystemsandgovernmentexpenditurevaryacrossEUMemberStatesdependingonfactorssuchastheutilisationofservices,levelsofdecentralisation,legaldutytoprovidefinancialassistance,forexampleinthecaseofhomelessness(BaptistaandMarlier,2019),andthetypesofservicesavailable.Thelevelofgovernmentexpenditureisalsolikelytoinfluencetheaveragecostofutilisingaserviceforavictimofgender-basedorintimatepartnerviolence.11Thecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEuropeanUnion2.Estimatingthecostsofgender-basedviolenceintheEU–UKcasestudyofcrime(Heeksetal.,2018),thismanifestsin2.2.UKcasestudyboththevictim’sproductivityonthejobandthetimetakenoffworkasaconsequenceofcrime.Tocalculatethelosteconomicoutputcostsofgender-basedandintimatepartnerviolence,thisstudyusedtheunitcostestimatesfromHeeksetal.(2018).Thisreportuses2015/2016dataoncrimeinEnglandandWalestoquantifytheeffectoflosteconomicoutputpercrimecategory.UnitcostsfromHeeksetal.(2018)wereadjustedto2019pricesandthecostsofgender-based