储能系统的比较研究

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ComparativeStudyofEnergyStorageSystems(ESSs)

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The1stInternationalConferenceonEngineeringandTechnology(ICoEngTech)2021 IOPPublishing

JournalofPhysics:ConferenceSeries

1962(2021)012035

doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1962/1/012035

ComparativeStudyofEnergyStorageSystems(ESSs)

LIMAsri,WNSFWAriffin,ASMZain,JNordinandNSSaad

FacultyofElectronicEngineeringTechnology,UniversitiMalaysiaPerlis,02600Arau,Malaysia

E-mail:

lyana6060@,

suryanifiruz@.my,

ainisyuhada@.my,

junita@.my,

nazatul@.my

Abstract.Renewableenergy(RE)resourceshaveshownimpressivegrowthglobally,asthesesourcesdonotprovideenoughamountthatisreadilyadaptabletoconsumerneeds,itcanrarelyallowanimmediateresponsetodemand.However,intermittencyinREsupply(RES)sources,combinedwithfluctuatingdemandshiftsovertime,hascausedahighriskofsustainingsystemreliabilitytoprovidecustomerswithsufficientsupply.TheexcessenergyproducedbyRESscanbestoredinamyriadofwaysandusedlaterduringshortagesorintermittentperiods.ThisstudywascarriedouttounderstandhowtoprovideenergystoragetocreateafuturebuiltenvironmentwhereREsystemsplayanessentialrole.Therearedifferenttypesofastoragesystemwithdifferentcharacteristic,parameters,andcosts.Thispaperhighlightsthechronology,classification,characteristic,comparison,andassessmentofESSsandenergystoragesystemsdeployment.

Introduction

Engineersandpolicymakersareincreasinglyfocusingonenergystorageduetorisingattentionabouttheenvironmentalconsequencesoffossilfuelsandtheefficiencyanddurabilityofenergygridsworldwide.Infact,energystoragecanhelpresolvetheintermittentnatureofwindpowerandsolar;insomeinstances,itcanalsorespondquicklytosignificantdemandchanges,makethegridreactingquicklyandminimizetheneedtoinstallbackuppowerplants.Anenergystoragefacility’sefficiencyisdeterminedbyhowrapidlyitcanrespondtodemandchanges,itstotalcapacitytostoreenergy,therateofenergylostinthestorageprocess,andhoweasilyitcanberecharged.

SolarPVonlysuppliespowerthroughoutthedaywiththepeak.Totalproductionisdifferenteveryday.Windproductionisunpredictablebutcanbedistributed24hoursperday.However,averageperformancecanvarydramatically;forexample,inoneregionofGermanyalone,therecanbealmost20GWchangeoveraday[1].Intermittentgrowthinrenewableenergyleadstochallengesinmaintainingthebalancewithinsupplyanddemand.Theclosureofconventionalpowerplantsdecreasesthefrequencycontrolcapability,whichiswhyenergystorageisneeded.Energystoragecanalsosatisfytheneedforelectricityatpeaktimes,i.e.,whenairconditionersblastduringsummertimeorwhenhouseholdsturnonthelightsandappliancesatnight.Aspowerplantsneedtoscaleupproductiontomeettheincreasedenergyuseduringpeaktimes,electricitybecomesmorecostly.Energystorageprovideshighergridefficiencybecauseutilitiescanpurchaseelectricityatoff-peakhourswhenenergyischeapandsellittothegridwhenitis

moreindemand[2].

ContentfromthisworkmaybeusedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttribution3.0licence.Anyfurtherdistributionofthisworkmustmaintainattributiontotheauthor(s)andthetitleofthework,journalcitationandDOI.

PublishedunderlicencebyIOPPublishingLtd 1

The1stInternationalConferenceonEngineeringandTechnology(ICoEngTech)2021 IOPPublishing

JournalofPhysics:ConferenceSeries

1962(2021)012035

doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1962/1/012035

PAGE

10

OverviewofEnergyStorageSystems

ChronologicalorderofEnergyStorageSystems

Theprocessesofelectro-chemicalsenergystoragestartedtodevelopveryrapidlyinthelate19thcentury.In1749,AmericanscientistBenjaminFranklinfirstusedtheword”battery”ashewasdoingexperimentswithelectricityusingasetoflinkedcapacitors.TheItalianphysicistAlessandroVoltainventedthefirstrealbatteryin1800[3].

Table1.ChronologicalorderofESS

Year

Types of

battery

Description

Ref

1800

Voltacell

TheinventionofthefirstbatteryledtotheVoltacell,whichused

abrinesolutionasanelectrolyteandhadalternatingcopperandzincdiscsdividedbycardboard.

[7,8]

1836

Danielcell

Regularlyidentifiedasazinc-copperbatterythattakesadvantage

ofaporousbarrierbetweentwoelectrolytes,theVoltacelldevelopedintotheDanielcell.JohnFredericDaniell,aBritishchemist,inventedtheDanielCell.

[9]

1866

Leclanche

cell

DanielcelltransformsintoaLeclanchecellinventedbyaFrench

engineercontaininganammoniumchlorideconductingsolution:theelectrolyte,anegativezincterminalandapositivemanganesedioxideterminal.

[10]

1859

Lead-acid

Thefirstrechargeablebatterybasedonlead-acidwasinventedby

theFrenchphysicianGastonPlant´e,astilluseddevice.Theywereallprimarybatteriesuntilthen,meaningtheywerenottypicallyrechargeable.

[7,8]

1899

Nickel–

cadmium(NiCd)

Thenickel-cadmium(NiCd)batteryusingnickelasthepositive

electrode(cathode)andcadmiumasthenegativeelectrode(anode)wasinventedbySweden’sWaldemarJungner.

[11]

1901

Nickel-iron

(NiFe)

ThomasEdisonreplacedcadmiumwithiron,whichwascalled

nickel-iron(NiFe).

[8,11]

1967

Nickel–metal

hydride,NiMH

Nickel-metal-hydridedevelopmentbeganin1967.Itactsasa

substituteforNiCdbecauseitonlyhasmildtoxicmetalsandprovideshigherspecificenergy.

[12]

1980

Li-ion

AmericanphysicistJohnBannisterGoodenoughinventedthe

lithium-ionnervoussystem.

[13]

1980

Lithium-

polymer

Thelithium-polymerbatteryinventioncameinthe1980s.Sony

integratedGoodenough’scathodeandacarbonanodeintotheworld’sfirstcommerciallithium-ionrechargeablebatteryin1991.

[14]

1954-

latest

Solarfuel

Solarfuels,inspiredbyenvironmentalconcerns,haverecently

gainedinterest.Thisisstillunderdevelopmentandstudy.Inthe1950s,BellLaboratoriesdiscoveredthatsemiconductingmaterialsweremorepowerfulthanselenium,suchassilicon.Theysucceededinmakingasolarcellthatwas6percentefficient.ThebrainsbehindthesiliconsolarcellatBellLabswereinventorsDarylChapin,CalvinFullerandGeraldPearson.

[15]

ThesefirstmeasureswereidentifiedwiththenamesofLuigiGalvani(1737-1798)andAlessandroContediVolta(1745-1827),whichremaininhistorythroughthewordsweusetoday:”galvanicelement”and”volt”.Galvanifoundthatifdeathmeetsvariousmetals,afroglegbeginstomove.Onthecontrary,Voltastudiedtheoutcomesobtainedwhencertain

saltsolutionsareinsertedintovariousmetals.Thelead/acid/leaddioxide(lead-acidbattery)mechanismwillnotbefoundwithoutthesetests[4].Table1showsthechronologyoftheenergystoragesystem.

ComparisonandcharacteristicofEnergyStorageSystem

Therefore,itiscrucialtocriticallyanalyzethefundamentalcharacteristicsofESSstocreatebenchmarksforselectingthebesttechnology.TheseESSscanalsobedefinedbytheirtechnicalspecifications,i.e.,maxpowerrating,dischargetime,energydensityandefficiency.Table2concentratesinESSscurrentlyproficientofgivingcriticalstoragecapacitiesofatleast20MW.AglossaryoftechnicaldataESSsisgiventohelpanybeginnerclearlyunderstandthecharacteristics[5,6].

Table2.ChronologicalorderofESS

MaxPower

Rating(MW)

Discharge

time

Max cycles

orlifetime

Energy

density(watt-hourperliter)

Efficiency

Pumpedhydro

3,000

4h-16h

30-60years

0.2-2

70-85%

Compressedair

1,000

2h-30h

20-40years

2-6

40-70%

Moltensalt

150

hours

30years

70-210

80-90%

Li-ionbattery

100

1min-8h

1,000-10,000

years

200-400

85-95%

Lead-acid

100

1min-8h

6-40years

50-80

80-90%

Flowbattery

100

hours

12,000-14,000

years

20-70

60-85%

Hydrogen

100

min-week

5-30years

600(atbar)

25-45%

Flywheel

20

secs-mins

20,000-

100,000years

20-80

70-95%

Maxpowerrating(MWorkW):Maxpowerratingforastoragesystemdeterminestherateofenergystorageinthestoragemedium.Itisalsocommonlydeterminedasaveragevalueandapeakvaluethatisoftenusedtoindicatemaximumpower,Pmax(W).

Dischargetime(energyperunit):Theamountoftimetakentofullydischargeenergyatitsratedpowerbythestoragesystemiscalleddischargetime.Themaximum-powerforthedurationofthedischarge,τ(s)=Wst/Pmax,whereWstistotalenergystoredandPmaxismaximumdischargepower.

Maxcycles/Lifetime(cycles/years):Thelifetimeforastoragesystemistoestimateitsperformanceandbespecifiedasthenumberofyearsaccordingtoitsratedcapacityandratedpower.

Energydensity(kWh/L):Theamountofenergythatcanbecontainedinthestoragematerialperunitvolumeisreferredtoastheenergydensity.

Efficiency(%):TheratiobetweenenergythattheESSdischargedandtheamountofenergycontainedinitisreferredtoastheESSdischargeefficiency.Theratioofreleasedenergyandstoredenergyisn=Wut/Wst,whereWutisusablereleasedenergyandWstistotalenergystored.

ClassificationofESSs

Thegrowingneedforenergystoragehaspushedintoanever-endingefforttofindnewstoragesystemsolutionsthataremoreeffectiveandcatertospecificrequirements.Therearemanytypes

ofESStechnologiescoexistingandcanbeclassifiedonthebasisoftheirparticularfunctions,responsetime,theformofenergystored,storagedurationandetc.,[5].Theenergystoragesystemmaybeusedforarangeofapplications.Someofthemmaybepreciselyselectedforaparticularapplication.Ontheotherhand,someothersaretheframeworkinquestioninabroaderframework.

TheESSclassificationisbroadlydeterminedbasedontheformofconvertedenergy.Energycanbeconvertedeitherintheformofthermal,chemical,mechanical,orelectrochemicalenergyormagneticorelectricalfields.Figure1illustratestheESS’sclassification.

Figure1.Theclassificationofenergystoragesystems.

ComparisonandAssessmentofESSs

ManystudieshavebeenperformedspecificallyforthepurposeofdrawingupathoroughcomparisonbetweenthevarioustypesofESS.

Comparisonbetweenpowerdensityandenergydensity

Figure2showsthecomparisonofESStechnologiesbetweenenergydensityandpowerdensity.Whenthedensityofenergyandpowerismoresignificant,thestoragesystem’svolumeislower.Onthetopright,highlydenseESStechnologieswhichareidealformobileapplications.Theextensiveandhigh-volumestoragesystemislocatedatthebottomleft.Flowbatteries,CAESandPHS,havealowenergydensityandareextensivearea.Thevolumeofitconsumesmorestoragesystems.Ontheotherhand,Li-ionbatterieshavealargeenergydensityandahigh-powerdensity,soLi-ioniscurrentlyusedinmanyapplications.

Figure2.ComparingtheESStechnologiesbetweenpowerdensityandenergydensity[5,16].

Comparisonbetweenthesystempowerratinganddischargetime

Figure3showstheapplicationoftheESSsgenerallyclassifiedintolarge,medium,andsmallscalesbasedonthedischargetimeatratedpowerandpowerrating.

Electrochemicalstoragesystemssuchaslithium(Li-ion),lead-acidandNaSbatteriesareprimarilyappropriateforapplicationswithamediumdischargetimeofminutestohours.Forashortdischargetimeatratedpowerapplications,alltechnologiesforhigh-powerstoragesuchasFlywheels,SupercapacitorandSMESaresuitable.PHSandCAESarelocatedbetweenmediumdischargetimesofstoragesystemandlargescalefordischargetimesatratedpower.

ESSscurrentlyavailableforuseinapplicationsinvolvingpowerqualityareSupercapacitors,Ni-Cd,lead-acidbatteryandLi-ionbattery,andFlywheelsalsoappeartobeapromisingsystemforthoseapplications.

Comparisonoflifeexpectancyandefficiencyofenergy

Figure4representsthecomparisonbetweenlifeexpectancyandenergyefficiencyofESSs.Beforechoosingastoragetechnology,thistwo-parameterisvitaltoconsider,amongothers,asitaffectsthetotalstoragecosts.

BothESShigh-powertechnologies,i.e.,FlywheelsandECCapacitors,aredistinguishedbytheirperformance,rangingfrom90-95%and84-97%,respectively.Currently,diabaticCAESsystemshavealowefficiencyoflessthan55%.However,thenewadiabaticCAESplantispresumedtoachieveanefficiencyofaround70%[16].Li-ionbatterieshavethehighestefficiencyoftheelectrochemicalstoragesystem,estimatedtobeover90%oreven97%.PHSsystemswillrunat70-87%efficiency,andtheuseofanadjustablespeedmachinecanincreaseefficiencyinthefuture.

LifeexpectancycanbegiveneitherincyclesoryearsforESSs.Intraditionalbattery

Figure3.ComparisonofESSsregardingtheratingofthepowersystemandtimeofdischargeatratedpower[5,17].

Figure4.Comparisonbetweenlifeexpectancyandenergyefficiency[17].

technology,lead-acidbatteriesintheorderof2000cycleshavethelongestcyclelife.however,morecyclescanbereachedbyLi-onandNASthanlead-acidbatteries.CAES,PHSandflywheelsaretechnologieswithaverylong-lifecycleofbetween10,000and30,000cycles,while

ECCapacitorsareabout100,000cycles[5].

ComparisonoftheinvestmentcostofESSs

TheinvestmentcostsofESSsarecomparedinFigure5.Storage-relatedinvestmentcostsareasignificanteconomicparameterandimpacttheoverallcostofenergyproduction.Hence,certaintypesofstoragesystemscanonlybecomeprofitableifsuppliedwithacertainminimumofresources.Toachieveaprecisecostanalysis,thetotalcostofthesystemmustbeappraised.

Figure5.ComparisonbetweenCapitalCostperUnitEnergyandCapitalCostperUnitPower[6].

Concerningthecapitalcostperunitofenergy,ECcapacitorsandhigh-powerflywheelshavethegreatestinvestmentcostofsomethousand/kWh.Atthesametime,metal-airbatteriesarethelower-pricedstorageoption.CAESalsohaveameagrecostforthestoragesystem.Long-durationflywheels,Li-ionandthezinc-airbatteryaremost-costlytechnologiesinthecapitalcostperunitpower.Apartfromlong-durationECcapacitorsandhigh-powerflywheels,high-powerECcapacitorsarethemostaffordable.

Datain2018andpredictionin2025forcostandparameters(powerconversionsystem,capitalcost–energycapacity,thebalanceofplant,constructionandcommissioning)rangesbytechnologiesisshowninFigure6[18].

Comparisonbasedonspecificpowerandenergy

Betweentechnologiesforhigh-power,thecapacitorhasthehighestspecificpowerofmorethan100,000(W/kg),whileTESisthelowestspecificpowerwhichis10-30(W/kg)[5].Intherangeof800-10,000(Wh/kg),thefuelcellexhibitsexceptionallyhighspecificenergy.Higherspecificenergygivesanimpactonstorageweight.Figure7showsthecomparisonbetweenspecificpowerandenergy.

Figure6.Overviewofthe2018dataand2025forecastscompiledbytechnologyforparameterranges[18].

Figure7.Comparisonbetweenspecificpowerandenergy.

DeploymentofESSs

Forthefirst-everintenyears,theglobalstoragemarketisdiminishing.In2019,electricitysystemsworldwidehadadded2.9GW’sstoragecapacity,nearly30%lowerthanin2018.Thereasonsbehindthisbottom-linemarkhowmuchstorage,presentinjustafewkeymarketsandprofoundlyreliantbasedonpolicysupport,continuesasanearly-stagetechnology.However,ifadequatelydeployed,energystorageprovidessystemoperatorswithflexibleandquickresponsecapabilitytoefficientlymanagegenerationandloadvariability.ESSshaverecentlyundergoneanaccelerateddecreaseincost,reflectingthelearningcrescentsseenoverthepastdecadefromwindandsolargeneration.

Figure8.The2013-2019annualdeploymentofESSbythecountry[19].

Theinstallmentofenergystoragehasstartedtogainmarketpopularityoverthelastfewyears.Figure8showstheIEA’scurrentdata,whichillustratesthestrideofbatteryenergystoragedeployments,exceptin2019.2016isthefirstyearinwhichtheannualdeploymentforenergystoragehasreached1GW.InKorea,annualdeploymentsdecreasedby80percentafterthe2018reportingyearwhenKoreaaccountedforone-thirdofallinstalledcapacityglobally.Thedecreasearosefromincreasingconcernin2018overmultiplefiresatstorageplantsinagrid-scale.Whilealarge-scalereviewofthefiresandsafetymeasureswascarriedout,in2019,fivemorefiresbrokeout.Theco-locationofREgenerationfacilitieswithenergystorageassets,whichhelpsstabilizegenerationandassuresmorerobustcapacityduringhighdemandtimes,hasbeenacriticaldriverofenergystoragegrowth.Large-scaleauctionwitha1.2GWofsolar-plus-storage,Indiaexpresslystartedrewardingthisapplicationin2019,requirethestoragecapacityfor50%oftheinstalledgeneration.Singaporehasdeclaredagoalfor2025,whichis200MWofstorage.IHSMarkit’sEnergyStorageBusiness,aglobalinformationproviderheadquarteredinLondon,recordsglobalinstallationsrisingbymorethan5GWin2020[20].TheothersubstantialpotentialimplementationofESSisinthemobilecommunicationarea.Thestudies

in[21–28]considercloudradioaccessnetwork(C-RAN),wheretheremoteradioheads(RRHs)areequippedwithrenewableenergyresourcesandcantradeenergywiththegrid.However,intheirproposedsystems,RRHsarenotinstalledwithfrequentlyrechargeablestoragedevices.ESSscanbeinstalledatthemasterbasestation(MBS)intheC-RANorcanbeemployedattheRRHswiththeadvancementofbatterytechnologies.Theselfenergystoragemanagementisexpectedtocontrolunequallocalrenewableenergygenerationtomatchtheenergyrequestbyreceivingterminalsthatalwayschangeovertime.

Conclusion

ViewingthepreviousworkonESSsandthereliabilityofthepowergrid,thispapercoversagreatdealofcriticalknowledgeonESSs.TheworldisobligedtobeenticedfurthertowardsESSstomovetowardsrenewableenergysources,whichwillneedafullunderstandingofthistechnology’sperspectives.Severaltypesoftechnicalparametershavebeencompared,whichwillencourageaspecifictypebasedonthemainspecifications.AbriefinsighthasbeenpresentedabouttheannualdeploymentofESS.ThemostappealingsolutionandlongtermforotherstoragesystemscompetingtodaymightnotalwaysbetheESS.However,thisimpliesthateveniftheflexibleness’sinvestmentsignalsarecurrentlylacking,assessingtheregionalandcountrypotentialwillbeimportantinthelongterm.

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