广告调查（第二版）英文 指导手册 Davis-Instructors-Manual-ch18 Brand Maps

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AdvertisingResearch:Instructor’sManual

Copyright©2012PearsonEducation,Inc.publishingasPrenticeHall

AdvertisingResearch:Instructor’sManual

Copyright©2012PearsonEducation,Inc.publishingasPrenticeHall

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18.BrandMaps

ChapterGoals

Whenstudentshavefinishedthischaptertheyshouldhaveabetterunderstandingof:

• theprincipalapproachestobrandmapping.

• theproceduresusedtoconstructeachtypeofbrandmap.

• howeachapproachtobrandmappingmakesacontributiontobrandunderstanding,brandpositioningandadvertisingstrategicdecision-making.

NotestotheInstructor

TheChapterLectureprovidesaguidetokeytopicsandcontent.PowerPointslidesarelabeled:davis_adresearch_ch18.ppt.

ChapterLecture

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Brandmapstranslatenumericdataintovisualrepresentationstohelpadvertisersbetterunderstand:(1)howconsumersperceivethestrengthsandweaknessesoftheirbrandandcompetitivebrands,and(2)benefitsvaluedbydifferentgroupsofconsumers.

Threetypesofbrandmaps:perceptualmaps,correspondencemaps,andconceptmaps.

I.InterpretingPerceptualMaps

Perceptualmapsareacommonformofbrandmapping.Theyprovideavisualrepresentationofconsumers’attitudes,typicallyintermsofperceivedstrengthsandweaknessesofbrandscompetinginthesamecategory.Aperceptualmapidentifies:(a)dimensionsconsumersusetoevaluatebrands,(2)strengthsandweaknessesofbrandswithregardtothesedimensions,(3)brand’scompetitiveset,and(4)brand’sstrengthsandweaknesseswithregardtocompetitivebrandsandconsumers’idealbrand.

A.DimensionsConsumersUsetoEvaluateBrands

Consumerstrytoevaluatebrandsusingtheleastamountoftimeandenergy.Theyaccomplishthisbyidentifyingandusingafewbroaddimensionsorfactorstocomparebrandsorproductsratherthanrememberingandusingmultiple,narrowerindividualproductattributes.Perceptualmappingmakesexplicitdimensionsthatconsumersusetoevaluatebrandsandproducts.

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TheperceptualmapshowninSlide18-5isthebeginningofmapforsocialnetworkingsites.Consumersusetwodimensionstoevaluatethesesites:(1)howeasyordifficultitistouseand(2)howpassé(oldanddated)orcutting-edgethesiteisthoughttobe.Eachdimensionisacontinuum.Bothendsofeachcontinuumarelabeledwithpositiveendsofeachcontinuumpointingupandtotheright.

Useoftwodimensionsresultsinfourquadrants(showninSlide18-6)labeledItoIV.QuadrantIIisgenerallythebestplaceforabrandtobeasitisherethatpositiveaspectsofbothdimensionsfall.QuadrantIVisgenerallytheworstplaceforabrandtobeasitisplacewherenegativeaspectsofbothdimensionsfall.

B.StrengthsandWeaknessesofIndividualBrands

Oncethedimensionsareidentified,individualbrandsareplottedonthemap.Slide18-7plotseightbrandsonsocialnetworkingperceptualmap.OnlytwofallintoQuadrantII.Thesebrandsarepoisedforsuccess,beingseenasboth

easytouseandcutting-edge.FourbrandsfallintoQuadrantIIIandarelikelyinserioustrouble,offeringnothingpositivetouserastheyareseenasbothhardtouseandpassé.

C.IdentifyingtheCompetition

Theclosertwobrandsareonaperceptualmap,theclosertheycompeteinconsumers’mind.Thismapindicatesthat:

• FacebookandBeboareindirectcompetitionwitheachother,andaresetapartfromothersites.

• Classmates,Friendster,ZorpiaandYahoo!360areseenassimilar,competitivesites.

• Myspacedoesnotdirectlycompetewithothersites.

• Xangadoesnotdirectlycompetewithothersites.

D.TheIdealBrand

BrandslocatedinQuadrantIItypicallyhaveacompetitiveadvantage,astheyarepositivelyperceivedonbothdimensions.InordertodeterminewhichbrandinQuadrantIIisrelativelystronger,aperceptualmapmayalsoplot“Ideal”brand–thebrandaconsumerbelieveshasallstrengthsandnoweaknesses.

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Slide18-8addstheIdealBrandtotheperceptualmap.NotethatwhiletheIdealBrandisexpectedtobebotheasytouseandcuttingedgeitismuchmoreimportantthatitbeeasytouse.Asaresult,BeboversusFacebookisrelativelystrongerbrandbecauseitisclosertotheIdealBrand.

II.ConstructingaPerceptualMap

DiscussionfocusesonconstructingaperceptualmapforInternetretailbookstores.

A.AttributeIdentification

Perceptualmapsbeginwithalistofspecificcategoryattributes.Itisveryimportantthatthelistcontainallattributesthatareknownorthoughttobeimportantinconsumers'evaluationoftargetbrandsorproducts.Importantdimensionscannotbediscoveredinabsenceoftheircomponentattributes.

Next,ratingscalesaredeveloped.Scalesaskrespondentstorateeachbrandorproduct(plustheidealbrand)oneachattribute,asshowninSlide18-10.ThetenattributesusedtoevaluatetheonlinebookstoresareshowninSlide18-11.

B.DeterminetheNumberofDimensions

Factoranalysisisusedtoexaminebrandandproductratings.Factoranalysismanipulatespairsofcorrelationcoefficientsinordertocreateenoughfactorstoaccountfor100%ofsamplevariance.ThiscanbeseenindatashowninSlide

18-12.Inthefirstcolumn,rowsarenumberedfrom1to10,reflectingthefact

thattenattributeswereevaluated.Totalforthelastcolumnis100%,notingthat

100%ofthevariancehasbeenaccountedfor.

Theremainingcolumnsprovidemorespecificinformation.

• Secondcolumnreportseigenvalue,amountofvarianceexplainedbyeachfactor.Columnisonlyimportanttotheextentthatitallowsustocalculatepercentageinnextcolumn.

• Thirdcolumntranslateseigenvaluesintopercentages.Totaloftheeigenvaluecolumnisalwaysequaltothenumberofattributesusedinresearch.Factorone,withaneigenvalueof

5.71,accountsfor57.1%oftotalsamplevariance(calculatedas

5.71÷10).Percentofvarianceisaveryimportantcalculationasitindicatesafactor'simportancetoconsumers.Greaterthepercentofvarianceaccountedfor,themoreimportantthatfactoristoconsumers.

Aresearcherexaminesthepercentofvarianceexplainedbyeachfactorandthenselectsthenumberoffactorstobeusedinsubsequentanalyses.Typically,researcherstrytoselecttheleastnumberoffactorsthatexplainthehighestamountofsamplevariance.Inthisexample,twofactorswouldlikelybeselectedastogethertheyaccountfor78.2%ofthevariance.Decisionseemsreasonable,asnotmuchisgainedbyaddingathirdfactor.Oncethenumberoffactorsisdetermined,afactoranalysiscomputerprogramreanalyzesdatarestrictingnumberoffactorstonumberselectedbytheresearcher.

C.AssociatingAttributesWithFactors

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Next,factorloadingforeachattributeiscomputedandexamined.Factorloadingindicatesdegreeofassociationbetweenindividualmeasureandfactor.Interpretedsimilartocorrelationcoefficient.Factorloadings,showingtherelationshipofeachattributewitheachfactor,aretypicallypresentedinatablesimilartothatshowninFigureSlide18-13.

Oncethetableisgenerated,itthenbecomesnecessarytofindtheonefactorwithwhicheachattributehasthestrongestassociation.Itidentifiedasthelargestnumberineachrowregardlessofthesign.Firstattribute,“thesitealwayshaswhatI’mlookingfor,”forexample,ismostassociatedwithFactor

1.Thefifthattribute,“thesiteprotectsmypersonalinformation,”ismostassociatedwithFactor2.

Onceassociationofeachattributewitheachfactorhasbeendetermined,itisoftenusefultoreorderandhighlightassociationstomakethepatterneasiertosee(seeSlide18-14).Interpretationiseasierwheneachattributehasapositiveassociationwithitsfactor.Negativesignscanbeeliminatedbyreversingattributedescriptionandthenreversingthesignsoftheassociatedfactorloading.

D.NamingFactors

Aresearchernextnameseachfactor.Thenamechosenreflectscommonorsharedcharacteristicsofattributesmostassociatedwiththefactor.Namesarebasedonresearcherjudgment.Dimensionnamesshouldbeacontinuum.Inthisexample,twofactorsmightbenamed:

• Factor1:Shoppingexperience(Greattopoor)

• Factor2:Shoppingsafety(verysafetonotatallsafe)

E.PlottingBrands

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Thefinalstepplacesbrandsoneachmap.Inordertodothis,aresearcherneedstoknoweachbrand’saveragescoreforeachfactor.Thescorecalculatedforeachbrandrepresentsanaverageratingofeachbrandforallmeasurescomprisinganindividualfactor.AveragefactorscoresforsevenInternetbook-storesareshowninSlide18-15.Thesescoresareusedtoplotbrandsonmap,

asshowninSlide18-16.

ThekeyinsightsprovidedbytheperceptualmapshowninFigure18.16are:

• Idealbrandisinupperright-handcornerofQuadrantII.Meansthatconsumerswantbothasuperiorshoppingexperienceandshoppingsafety.

• AmazonandAlibrisareinbestcompetitivepositioninQuadrantII.Thesebrandsareseenasmostsimilarbyconsumers,althoughAmazoninthestrongercompetitivepositionbeingplacedclosertoIdealbrand.

• BooktopiaisinworstpositioninQuadrantIV.Brandisonlyonebelievedtolackeitherofthebenefitsvaluedbyconsumers.

• Bookworldhasnodirectcompetition.ItisaloneinQuadrantI.

Possessesone(outofthetwo)benefitsvaluedbyconsumers.

• Bookspot,BestsellersandBookDepotdirectlycompetewitheachotherinQuadrantIII.Allthreebrandspossessjustonebenefitvaluedbyconsumers.

III.PerceptualMapsandAdvertisingStrategy

A.AdvertisersinaStrongCompetitivePosition

AmazonandAlibrisareinastrongcompetitivepositionrelativetotheotherbrands.ReflectedinQuadrantIIplacement-possessbothimportantbenefits.AmazonappearstobeinrelativelythestrongestpositionduetocloserplacementtoIdeal.Strategicoptionsreflectbrandposition,competitors’position,andpositionofIdealbrand.

• AmazonlikelytodefendstrategicplaceasitisstrongestofallsevenbrandsandclosesttotheIdealbrand.

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• Alibrisisfacedwithdifferentsituation.Whileinpositiveposition,itisrelativelyweakversusAmazon.Threeoptionsareavailable.First,(asshowninSlide18-17)canreinforcecurrentpositionwhileattemptingtodegradeperceptionsofAmazon.Ifsuccessful,strategywouldmoveAmazonawayfromtheIdeal,leavingAlibriscloserbrand.Second,(asshowninSlide18-18)canattempttoimproveitownimage,bypassingAmazonandmovingitselfclosertotheIdeal.Wouldhavetofocusentirelyonimprovingperceptionsofitsshoppingexperience(whilemakingcertainthatits“Safety”perceptionsdidnotdegrade).Third(asshowninSlide18-19)canleaveitsownandAmazon’splacementsalone,attemptingtomovetheIdealbrandcloserto

itsbrand,ineffecttryingtoconvinceconsumersthatsafetyismoreimportantthanasuperiorshoppingexperience.

B.AdvertisersWithaModeratelyStrongCompetitivePosition

(AsshowninSlide18-20)Bookworld,Bestsellers,BookspotandBookDepotareinmoderatelystrongcompetitionpositions.Theyareinquadrantswheretheyareperceivedashavingstrengthononedimensionandweaknessontheother.StrategiesforthesebrandstakeintoaccountdistancefromIdealbrandandplacementandnumberofcompetitivebrandssharingtheirquadrant.

• Bookworldisinuniqueposition.Itistheonlybrandinitsquadrant.

Consumers’perceptionsofBookworld“Safety”areashighasboth

AlibrisandIdealBrand.Twooptionsavailable.First,canchooseto

remainwhereitis,becomingnichebrandcateringtoindividualswhovaluejustsingledimensionofshoppingsafety.Second,(asshowninSlide18-21)canattempttoimproveconsumers’perceptionsofitsshoppingexperience.Ifthislatterstrategyissuccessful,thebrandwouldmovefromQuadrantIVtoQuadrantII,greatlyimprovingitscompetitivepositionandactuallymovingtheclosesttoIdealbrand.

• Bestsellers,BookspotandBookDepot,areinaverydifferentposition.Therearethreecloselyplacedbrandsinthisquadrant.Itwouldbedifficultforonebrandtodistinguishitselffromanotherifitremainsinitscurrentplace.Mostcommonoptionforbrandsinthispositionistobreakawayfromthepack,inthissituation,by

improvingperceptionoftheshoppingsafety.Ifsuccessful,thebrandwouldmovefromQuadrantIIItoQuadrantII.

ThereishighriskbuthighrewardoptionforbrandsinQuadrantsIandIII.RatherthanattempttomovebrandintoQuadrantII,mightdecidetotryandconvinceconsumerstoevaluatebrandsbasedonentirelynewdimension.If

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successful,andassumingthisnewdimensionisauniquestrengthofthebrand,thebrandwouldfinditselfinstrongestcompetitiveposition,beingtheonlybrandclosetotheIdealduetoitsstrengthinoriginalandnewdimension.Imagine(asshowninSlide18-23)thatBestsellersis,ofallthebrands,thebest“corporatecitizen,”donating25%ofallcorporaterevenuetocharity,employingstateoftheartenvironmentalcontrols,purchasingenergyfrom

sustainablesources,etc.IfBestsellerscanconvinceconsumersthatthisismuchmoreimportantthanhavinganexcellentshoppingexperiencethentheresultingmapwouldbeonewhereBestsellersmovesclosesttothenewIdealbrandand

itwouldbetheonlybrandinthisquadrantbecauseitistheonlybrandwith

positiveperceptionsonnewdimension.Thismapbrandreflectseachbrand’soriginalperceptionsof“Safety”anditsnewperceptionsof“CorporateCitizen.”

C.AdvertisersinaWeakCompetitivePosition

OptionsforbrandsinQuadrantIV(seeSlide18-24)facealmostinsurmountablehurdlestomarketplacesuccess.Theyareperceivedaspossessingnoneoftheattributesofvaluetoconsumers.Brandsinthisquadrantmustfirstinvestintheirbrandssothattheydeliverwhatisimportanttoconsumersandthenmustchangeconsumers’perceptionstomatchthesebrandchanges.

IV.CorrespondenceMaps

Correspondencemapsaresimilartoperceptualmaps.Bothprovideavisualrepresentationofconsumers’brandperceptionsandbrandcompetitivesets.Instead,theyidentifythesetofspecificattributeswithwhichabrandismostassociated.

A.StepsinCreation

1.AttributeIdentification

Firststeplistsspecificcategoryattributes.Itisveryimportantthatlistofbrandandproductattributescontainallattributesthatareknowntobe(orthatjudgmentorresearchindicatescouldpotentiallybe)importantinconsumers'evaluationoftargetbrandsorproducts.Alsopossibletoincludeattributesthatarenotcurrentlyavailablebutmaybeintroducedinthefuture.Allowsadvertisertoseeifanybrandsarealreadyassociatedwiththesepotentialattributes.

2.CreateNominalLevelMeasures

Designedtodeterminewhetherornotspecificattributesareassociatedwithspecificbrands.Measureselicityes/noresponses,asfollows:

Differentonlinebookstoreshavedifferentcharacteristics.I'dliketoreadyoualistofcharacteristics,oneatatime.Aftereachcharacteristic,I’llreadalistofonlinebookstores.Foreachbookstore,pleasetellmewhetherthatbookstoredoes

ordoesnotpossessthatcharacteristic.Youcansay“yes”if

itdoespossessthecharacteristicsand“no”ifitdoesnot.

3.FactorandCorrespondenceAnalysis

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Correspondenceanalysisthenplotsdatainatwo-dimensionalvisual,wheredistancesbetweenbrandsandattributesreflectdegreeofassociation.Closerplacementonthemapindicatesstrongerrelationship.CorrespondentmapshowninSlide18-28,presentsconsumers’viewsoffourdifferentcellphone

companies.

• NobrandsareviewedasbeingclosetotheIdeal,whereIdealbrandismostassociatedwithattributes“excellentservice,”“excellentvalue”and“worksanywhere.”

• CompetitorCisclosesttoIdealofallcompetitors.Thisbrandisstronglyassociatedwiththeattributes“confusingbilling”and“confusingplans.”

• Nobrandisassociatedwiththegroupingofpositiveattributesintheupperleft-handcorner.Theseattributesareofsecondaryimportance,however,sincetheyarefarfromtheIdealbrand.

• CompetitorsAandBareviewedassimilartoeachotherandfarfromtheIdeal.Bothbrandsareassociatedwithmultiplenegativeattributes.

B.ApplicationtoAdvertisingStrategy

Thisallowsadvertiserstodetermine,fromtheconsumers’perspective,thestrengthsandweaknessesoftheircurrentpositioningandbrandswithwhichtheymostdirectlycompete.Itindicatestheextenttowhichbrandshoulddefenditscurrentpositioningoralteritspositioninginanattempttomovetoadifferentplaceonthemap.InlookingatmapshowninSlide18-28:

• BrandCisinstrongestcompetitiveposition.ItsplaceinthemarketplacecanbestrengthenedbymovingitclosertotheIdeal(byimprovingconsumers’perceptionsofitsservice,valueandreliability)whileatthesametimemovingawayfromitsassociationwiththenegativeattributesofconfusing

billingandplans.

• BrandsAandBareinveryweakcompetitivepositions.

Thesebrandsneedtodifferentiatethemselvesfromeach

other,moveawayfromthesetofperceivednegativeassociations,andimprovetheirassociationwithpositiveattributes

V.BrandConceptMaps

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Theseprovidedetailonhowconsumersperceiveonespecificbrand.AsimplifiedbrandconceptmapforVolkswagenisprovidedinSlide18-29.ThemaprepresentsthemostimportantattributesconsumersassociatewithVolkswagen.Thegreaterthenumberoflineslinkingtwoattributes,thegreatertheassociation.ThemapshowsthatVolkswagenismostassociatedwiththeattribute“funtodrive”andstronglyassociatedwiththeattributes“neatcolors,”and“inexpensive.”

Abrandconceptmapcreatedinathree-stepprocess:elicitation,mappingandaggregation.WewilldiscusseachofthesestepsinthecontextofdevelopingabrandconceptmapfortheMayoClinic.

A.Elicitation

Researchersidentifythemostimportantbrandassociations.Thiscanbeobtainedqualitativelythroughfocusgroupsorthroughquantitativesurveys.Mustadheretofourcriteria:

• Datashouldbegatheredfromthesameconsumerpopulationastheonebeingusedinthemappingstage.

• Datashouldbebasedonconsumerresponsestoopen-endedquestions(e.g.,“Whenyouthinkof[brand],whatcomestomind?”).Open-endedquestionsallowconsumerstovoicewhateverbrandassociationsaremostaccessibleandimportanttothemintheirownwords.

• Themostfrequentlymentionedbrandassociationsshouldbeselectedtoformthefinalset.

• Inselectingexactphrasingforsalientbrandassociations,itisimportanttoretainwordingthatconsumersuseratherthanwordingthatresearchersormanagersuse.

B.Mapping

Collectsbrandassociationdatafromconsumers.Eachfrequentlymentionedassociationfromthepriorstepisplacedonanindexcard,andtheentiredeckisshuffledandgiventoaconsumer.Next,

Respondentsareaskedtoselectanyofthepre-madecardsthatreflecttheirfeelingsaboutthebrand.Asachecktoensurethatallsalientbrandassociationshavebeenincludedonthecards,blankcardsaremadeavailableforrespondentswhowanttoaddadditionalassociationstotheset.Then,respondentsareshownanexampleofaBCM[brandconceptmap]andaregiveninstructionsonbuildingtheirownbrandmap.Respondentsusethebrandassociationstheyhaveselectedandconnectthemtooneanotherandtothebrand,usinganothersetofcardswithdifferenttypesoflines(single,double,ortriple)tosignifythestrengthoftheconnectionbetweenassociations.

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C.Aggregation

Researchercodesthemapscreatedbyeachindividualrespondentandusessetofdecisionrulestocombineindividualmapsintoonemastermap.Codingisatwo-stepprocess.First,eachattributeappearingonanindividualmapiscodedinfourways:

1.whethertheattributewaspresent(ornot),

2.typeofline(single,doubleortriple)connectingeachassociationtothetargetbrandortoanotherattribute,

3.levelatwhichassociationappearsonthemap,and

4.whichbrandassociationswerelinkedaboveandbeloweachassociationonthemap.

Codesarethenaggregatedintosummarymeasures:

• FrequencyofMentionisnumberoftimesthatabrandassociationoccursacrossmaps.

• NumberofInterconnectionsreportsnumberoftimesthatabrandassociationisconnectedtootherbrandassociations.

• FrequencyofFirst-OrderMentionscountsofthenumberoftimesthatabrandassociationisdirectlylinkedtothebrandacrossindividualmaps.

• RatioofFirst-OrderMentionsreportspercentageoftimesthatabrandassociationislinkeddirectlytothebrandwhenitisincludedonanindividualbrandmap.

• TypeofInterconnectionsindicateshowfrequentlyabrandassociationisplacedaboveorbelowotherassociations.

Setofdecision-rulesgovernshowcodeddataistranslatedintoexemplarbrandconceptmap.

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FinalbrandmapisshowninSlide18-35.SimilartotheVolkswagenmap,thegreaterthenumberoflineslinkingtwoattributesthegreatertheassociation.Additionally,asolid-linecircleindicatesacoreassociationwhileadashed-linecirclesignifiesanon-coreassociation.

D.ApplicationtoAdvertisingDecision-Making

Advertisersmayfindthemselvesinoneoftwosituations:(1)wheredesiredpositioningisthesameasthepositioningassignedbyconsumersor(2)whereconsumersassociateattributeswithabrandinawaythatrunscountertotheadvertisers’wishesorgoals.

VII.AdditionalConsiderationsintheuseofPerceptual,Correspondence,andConceptMaps

A.Perceptualmapsforthesamebrandsoftenchangeacrossdifferentconsumersegments

Itisoftenbeneficialtouseperceptualmapstoseehowdifferentsegmentsofconsumersdifferwithregardtovaluetheyplaceondifferentdimensionsandwheretheyplacebrandsonthosedimensions.

ThemapinSlide18-36representstheplacementofautomotivebrandsby18to

24yearoldswhilemapinSlide18-37representsplacementby45to54yearolds.Twoimportantdifferences:

• Idealbrandisinadifferentpositiononthetwomaps.While18-

24yearoldsvalueboth“dependability”and“style,”thelatter

dimensionismuchmoreimportanttothisgroup.Conversely,

theoldergroupplacesmuchmorevalueon“dependability,”

with“style”dimensionbeingonlyofmoderateimportance.

• Brandplacementonthetwomapsisverydifferent,bothintermsofcompetitivesetsandwithregardtothebrandsbelievedtobeclosesttotheIdeal.

Verydifferentmarketingstrategieswouldneedtobedevelopedtoreachmembersofeachagegroup.

B.ComparingCurrentandPotentialCustomersContributestoStrategic

Decision-Making

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CorrespondencemapshowninSlide18-38providestheseusers,nonusersandinfrequentusersplacementof“HealthyChoiceFrozenDinners.”Eachgroupassociatesbrandwithdifferentsetofattributes.

Anadvertiserwouldneedtodeterminewhichtargetgroupshouldbetheprimarytarget,andhowaddressingthistargetaffectstheperceptionsofothergroups.

C.BeforeandAfterMapsCanTrackAdvertisingImpact

AdvertisingagencyD'ArcyMasiusBenton&Bowlesaskedrespondentstoratetwelveautomobilemanufacturersonfifteenattributes(suchasquality,sporty,technologicallyadvanced,etc.).Resultsoftheseinitialratingsshownonthe

pre-advertisingexposureperceptualmapshowninSlide18-39.Mapshows

that,beforeexposure,consumersusedtwodimensionstodistinguishamongcarmanufacturers.Onedimensionrelatedtoageofdriverandaffordability.Thisdimensionwasanchoredby"affordable,youngperson'scar"(exemplifiedbymanufacturerM)and"luxurious,comfortable,olderperson'scar"(exemplifiedbymanufacturersFandG).Seconddimensionrelatestocarcharacteristicsandisanchoredby"afamilycar"(exemplifiedbymanufacturerB)and"high-quality,technologicallyadvancedcar"(exemplifiedbymanufacturerI).

Followingthisinitialrating,consumerswereexposedtomultiplepiecesofadvertising.Eachrespondentviewedsixtelevisioncommercialsandreadtwoprintadsforeachautomobilemanufacturer.Afterviewing,con