世界银行-性别角色态度、感知规范与摩洛哥的“双重负担”（英）-2024.2

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PolicyResearchWorkingPaper10694

GenderRoleAttitudes,PerceivedNorms,

andthe“DoubleBurden’’inMorocco

CarolynBarnett

WORLDBANKGROUP

MiddleEastandNorthAfricaRegion

OfficeoftheChiefEconomist

February2024

PolicyResearchWorkingPaper10694

Abstract

Towhatextentdoattitudesandperceivednormsaroundhouseholdroleshindertheemergenceofmoregender-equaldistributionsoflaborinMorocco?Moroccanwomenundertakeadisproportionateshareofunpaidhouseholdandcarelaborandparticipateinthelaborforceatlowrates.Yeteverydaypracticesareshifting,andnormativeexpectationsmaybeaswell.Fromanonlinesurveyofpre-dominantlyurban,employedMoroccans,thispaperfindsthatrespondentsaspireformentobeequalcontributorsincaretasks.Yet,unpaidlaborburdensremainhighlyunequal,

respondentsdisfavormentakingprimaryresponsibilityforcookingorcleaning,andwomen’sshareofhouseholdlaborcorrelateswithperceptionsofwhatmenprefermorethanwithindividuals’actualpreferences.Resultsfromaconjointsurveyexperimentmeasuringpreferencesaroundemploymentandthehouseholddivisionoflaborcon-firmrespondents’interestinmoreegalitarianrelationsinprinciple,butalsosuggestthatstrongpreferencesforamalebreadwinnerfamilymodelwillcontinuetodriveanunequaldistributionoflaborathome.

ThispaperisaproductoftheOfficeoftheChiefEconomist,MiddleEastandNorthAfricaRegion.ItispartofalargereffortbytheWorldBanktoprovideopenaccesstoitsresearchandmakeacontributiontodevelopmentpolicydiscussionsaroundtheworld.PolicyResearchWorkingPapersarealsopostedontheWebat

/prwp.The

authorsmaybecontactedatcarolynbarnett@.

ThePolicyResearchWorkingPaperSeriesdisseminatesthefindingsofworkinprogresstoencouragetheexchangeofideasaboutdevelopmentissues.Anobjectiveoftheseriesistogetthefindingsoutquickly,evenifthepresentationsarelessthanfullypolished.Thepaperscarrythenamesoftheauthorsandshouldbecitedaccordingly.Thefindings,interpretations,andconclusionsexpressedinthispaperareentirelythoseoftheauthors.TheydonotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsoftheInternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment/WorldBankanditsaffiliatedorganizations,orthoseoftheExecutiveDirectorsoftheWorldBankorthegovernmentstheyrepresent.

ProducedbytheResearchSupportTeam

GenderRoleAttitudes,PerceivedNorms,andthe“DoubleBurden”inMorocco

CarolynBarnet

t*

Keywords:Householdlabor,carework,mentallabor,gendernorms,perceivednorms,femalelaborforceparticipation

JELcodes:J16,J21,J22,J71

*AssistantProfessor,UniversityofArizona.ThisworkwassupportedbytheMENAChiefEconomistOfficeunderthelaborandgenderresearchprograms.

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1Introduction

Thedoubleburdenmanywomenfacecombininglaborforceparticipationwithunpaiddomesticlaborandcareworkrepresentsamajorimpedimenttofemalelaborforcepartic-ipationandpoliticalparticipationintheMENAregion(ILO2018;Nazier2019;Women2020).Expectationsthatwomenwilltakeonthedominantrolecaringforthehomeandraisingchildrenleadmanywomentoexitthelaborforceuponfamilyformation(Assaad,Krafft,andSelwaness2022).Atthesametime,normsaroundhouseholdtaskburden-sharingareinflux,andactiveeffortstochangenormsareunderway.Inthisdomainasinothers,attitudesandsocialpracticecouldshiftmorerapidlythannormativeexpecta-tionsofwhatothersbelieveandvalue(orperceivednorms).Towhatextentdoattitudesandperceivednormsaroundhouseholdroleshindertheemergenceofmoregender-equal

distributionsoflaborinMorocco?

Thisstudydrawsonanoriginalonlinesurveyof1,038Moroccanadultstoinvestigatetheseandrelatedquestions.AconveniencesamplerecruitedviaQualtricsinJanuary-February2023answeredquestionsaboutresponsibilityforhouseholdtaskswithintheirhomes,theirattitudesaroundgenderroleswithinthehome,andtheirperceptionsofwhatmen,women,andtheirneighborsthinkaboutthesameissues.Therespondentsalsocomparedhypotheticalidealhouseholdconfigurationsinaconjointsurveyexperimentthatmeasuredpreferencesoverwhethermenandwomeneachworkoutsidethehomeandhowunpaidlaborandcaretasksaredistributed.AninformationexperimentonthesurveyalsotestedwhetherencounteringrealdataaboutincreasesinthetimemenspentonhouseholdtasksduringtheCOVID-19pandemicalteredperceptionsabouthow

attitudesaroundhouseholdgenderroleswouldevolveinthefuture.

AmongthesurveyrespondentsasamongthegeneralMoroccanpublic,unpaidlaborburdensremainhighlyunequal,yetmen’sandwomen’sperceptionsoftheirrelativecontributionsdiverge.Iexamineresponsestoquestionsaboutwhointherespondents’householdsisprimarilyresponsiblefor13commontasks.Women’sestimatesofthefemaleshareofhouseholdlaborarehigherthanmen’sestimates,withmenmorelikelytoclaim

thattasksareundertakenequally.Marriedwomenreportnear-exclusiveresponsibility

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forcleaning,cooking,anddoingthedishes,whilemarriedmenreportnear-exclusiveresponsibilityforpayingbillsandmakingrepairs.Onothertasks,womenaremorelikelytoreportprimaryresponsibility,whilemenaremorelikelytoclaimtheyandtheirspouseundertakethesetasksequally.Unmarriedrespondentsgenerallyreportthattheirmothersareresponsibleforamuchgreatersharethantheirfathers.Womenaremorelikelythanmentoreportthattheirhouseholdresponsibilitiesinhibittheirabilitytoworkortheircareerprogression.Employedwomendonotreportlowerburdensofhouseholdlabor

thanwomennotcurrentlyemployed.

Ithenexaminehowthedistributionofhouseholdlaborrelatestorespondents’atti-tudesandperceptionsofothers’attitudesaroundhouseholdgenderroles.Inthisstudy,Iusetheterm“perceivednorms”torefertothesenormativeexpectations,orbeliefsaboutothers’beliefsandvalues,asopposedtobeliefsaboutwhatothers(empirically)do.

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Ifindthatthefemalehouseholdshareoflabordoesnotcorrelatewithrespondents’personalattitudesorwiththeirperceptionsofwhatwomenbelieve,butdoescorrelatewithrespondents’perceptionsofwhatmenbelieve.Thatis,thesurveyfindingsconfirmthatrespondentsperceivetheactualorganizationofhouseholdlaborasmainlylinkedtowhattheythinkmenvalue.Incontrast,respondents’personalbeliefsareclearlylinkedtotheiraspirationstoworkoutsidethehome(amongwomen)orinterestinhavingtheirwifeworkoutsidethehome(amongmen).Theseresultssuggestthatmisperceivednormsmightinhibitwomen’slaborforceparticipation,asotherstudies(Bursztyn,González,andYanagizawa-Drott2020)havefound.Yetaninformationexperimentincludedinthesurveyfoundnoevidencethathighlightingmen’scontributionstohouseholdlaborincreasedrespondents’expectationsofmoreegalitarianhouseholdgenderrolesinthe

future.

Finally,Iexamineaconjointsurveyexperimentassessingrespondents’idealorgani-zationoflaborinandoutsidethehome.Respondentscomparedtwohypotheticalhouse-

holdsandindicatedwhichwasclosertotheirideal.Ifindthatrespondentsareindifferent

1.Foramoreextendeddiscussionofthevariousdimensionsofnormsandperceptionsofthem,seeZeitoun,ElAssiouty,Rahman,Osman,andGirgis(2023).

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betweenwomentakingprimaryresponsibilityformosttasksandmenandwomensharingthosetasksequally,butdisfavormentakingprimaryresponsibilityforcookingandclean-ing.Theintensityofthesepreferences,however,isdwarfedbyallrespondents’strongpreferencethatmenworkoutsidethehomeandmen’s(weaker)preferencethatwomennotworkoutsidethehome.Iarguethissuggeststhatwomen’sunpaidlaborburdenisprimarilyasideeffectofpreferencesforamalebreadwinnerfamilymodelwhichpre-cludesmentakingprimaryresponsibilityforhouseholdtasks,butdoesnotreflectstrongobjectionstomencontributingtohouseholdtasks.Directquestionsaboutwhoshouldworkoutsidethehomeandwhoshouldbeprimarilyresponsibleforhouseholdtaskscon-firmthestrongattachmenttothemalebreadwinnermodelandopennesstomoreequalhouseholdcontributionsinrelationtocaretasks,butattachmenttowomen’sprimary

responsibilityforcookingandcleaning.

Intheconclusion,Iarguethattakentogether,thesefindingssuggestthelimitedpo-tentialofeffortstoalterthedomesticdistributionoflaborasawayto“freewomenup”forformallaborforceparticipation.Moroccansaspireformentocontributemoreequallytohouseholdtasks—andmanymenalreadyportraythemselvesasdoingso—butstrongoppositionremainstomentakingprimaryresponsibilityfortasksorforegoingpaidemployment.Iarguethatthesefindingsalsoreflectacultureof“benevolentsexism”thatvalorizeswomen’straditionalroleswhileemphasizingthatwomendeservehelpathomefromsupportivepartners.Thiscanexplainboththerelativeinterestin“equal-izing”householdcontributionsinsomespheres(andmen’sinterestinemphasizingtheextenttowhichtheycontribute)co-existingwithpreferencesformenworkingoutsidethehome,womennotworkingoutsidethehome,andwomentakingprimaryresponsibility

forhouseholdtasks,wherefeasible.

Together,thefindingssuggestlimitedscopeforexpandingwomen’slaborforcepar-ticipationbyalteringattitudesorperceivednormsaroundgenderedresponsibilityforhouseholdtasksalone.Existingopennesstomoreequaldivisionsofhouseholdlaborinprincipleareconstrainedbythestrengthofattachmenttoamalebreadwinnerfamily

modelanddisinterestinmentakingprimaryresponsibilityforhouseholdtasks.Build-

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ingonrecentscholarshiptoinvestigateconceptionsofmasculinityandtheirinfluenceonindividuals’preferencesandbehaviorcouldbeapathtowardaddressingthelatter

obstacles.

2Background

InMENAaselsewhere,reconcilingresponsibilitiesatworkandathomecanbechal-lenging,especiallyforwomenwhohavetraditionallyshoulderedthemajorityofunpaidhouseholdlabor.Ahighburdenathomemayposeanimpedimenttofemalelaborforceparticipation,whichremainslowbyglobalstandardsintheMENAregiondespitewomen’srisingeducationalattainment(Assaad,Hendy,Lassassi,andYassin2020).Ex-pectationsthatwomenwilltakeonthedominantrolecaringforthehomeandraisingchildrenleadmanywomentoexitthelaborforceuponfamilyformation(Assaad,Krafft,andSelwaness2022).State-fundedchildcarefacilitiesarerare,andprivatechildcarepro-visionisusuallyinformal,in-home,andminimallyregulated.Wherepublicchildcareisavailable,insufficientoperatinghoursmaynonethelessinhibitorevendecreasewomen’slaborforceparticipation(KrafftandLassassi2020).Cross-nationalcomparisonsoftime-usesurveysshowthattheratiooftimespentonunpaidlaborbywomenversusmenintheMENAisamongthehighestintheworld(Charmes2015,2019).TheCOVID-19pandemicalsoincreasedwomen’sunpaidworkandcareburdensintheregion(Hendy

andYassin2022;Moghadam2021;OECD2020).

Atthesametime,normsaroundhouseholdtaskburden-sharingareinflux,andactiveeffortstochangenormsareunderway.InMorocco,forexample,recentanthropologicalresearchhasexploredhowfemalelaborforceparticipationcontributestotherenegotia-tionofexpectedhouseholdresponsibilities(Bouasria2013,2017;Dike2021).Commu-nityassociationsworkingonwomen’sempowermentinMoroccohavealsoundertakenawarenesscampaignsfocusedonde-stigmatizingmen’scontributiontohouseholdlabor(Barnett2022).Duringtheearlyphasesofthepandemic,Facebookpostsinthecountry

wentviralhighlightinghowmencouldrelievetheburdensoflockdownbycontributing

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moretohouseholdchoresandfeaturingmenproudlyshowingtheirdomesticcontribu-tions.Morebroadly,asKrafft,Selwaness,andSieverding(2022)arguewithrespecttotheMENAregionasawhole,“thepandemichasunderscoredgenderinequalityincarework,butalsooffersanopportunitytorethinkcareresponsibilitiesandultimatelyrecognize,

reduce,andredistributecarework”(3).

Inpriorwork(Barnett2022,2023),IcollectedthefirstevidenceavailableontherelationshipbetweenpersonalattitudesandperceivednormsonarangeofgenderissuesinMorocco.Onestriking,unexpectedfindingwasalargegapbetweenwhatMoroccanssaytheyvalueandwhattheybelieveothersvaluewhenitcomestomen’scontributionstounpaiddomesticandcarework.Inanationallyrepresentativesurvey,75.6%ofMoroccansagreedorstronglyagreedthatmenarejustasresponsiblefortakingcareofthehouseholdandchildrenaswomenare,butonly54.7%believedmostoftheirneighborssimilarlyagreed.Totheextentthatbehavioralignsmorewithperceivednormsthanpersonalattitudes,suchmisperceptionsmayrepresentanunnecessaryconstraintonmoreequal

householddistributionsoflaborandultimatelyonfemalelaborforceparticipation.

PreviousresearchinOECDcontextshashighlightedgendergapsinperceptionsofhowothersvalueunpaidlaborandtheextenttowhichtheyseethemasfair(seee.g.CerratoandCifre(2018)).Weknowlittle,however,aboutindividuals’perceptionsofothers’attitudestowardandtimespentonunpaidlaborandcareworkintheMENAregion,withsomenotablerecentexceptionsinstudiesofEgypt(Zeitounetal.2023)andJordan(Gauri,Rahman,andSen2019).Atthesametime,recentresearchhasshownthatpeopleintheMENAregionandSouthAsia,especiallymen,generallytendtoover-estimateothers’embraceofpatriarchalattitudes(Bursztyn,González,andYanagizawa-Drott2020;Gulzar,Sonnet,andKhan2020;Minardi,Akmal,Crawfurd,andHares2021).Onepolicyimplicationofthesefindingsisthatprovidingmoreaccurateinformationandmorepositivenarrativesaboutexistingchangesinattitudesmightcorrectmisperceivednorms,inturnalteringhowindividualsbehave(Bursztyn,González,andYanagizawa-Drott2020;Gauri,Rahman,andSen2019),althoughthelong-termeffectsofinformation

interventionsremainuncertain(PrenticeandPaluck2020;TankardandPaluck2017).

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Thisprojectaddressesthesegapsandshedslightonthesequestionsbygatheringorig-

inaldataonMoroccans’attitudes,experiences,andperceptionsaroundunpaidlabor,carework,andpaidworkoutsidethehome.HowdoMoroccans’attitudesandperceivednormsaroundvariousaspectsofunpaidlaborandcareworkwithinthehouseholdrelatetooneanotherandtotheiractualbehavior?Towhatextentdoattitudesandperceivednormsaroundhouseholdroleshindertheemergenceofmoregender-equaldistributions

oflabor?

3Data

3.1SurveySample

Theoriginaldatadiscussedinthispapercomefromasurveyof1,038Moroccanre-

spondentsrecruitedthroughQualtricsfromJanuary25toMarch3,2023.Qualtricsmaintainsaccesstoapre-recruitedpoolofMoroccanrespondentswhocompletesurveysinexchangeforasmallfinancialincentive.

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Demographicquotasbasedongender,age,andgeographiclocationwereemployedtoensureabaselinelevelofrespondentdiver-sity.AppendixTable

1

summarizesthedemographicsofthesampleandcomparesittothatofanationalprobabilityfacetofacesurvey(F2F)conductedin2022bytheArabBarometer.Theonlinesampledisproportionatelysurveysindividualswhoarecur-rentlyemployed(58%versus38%intheF2Fsurvey),whileunder-representingstudents,theunemployed,housewives,andretiredindividuals.Onlinerespondentsarealsomorelikelytoself-identifyasonlysomewhatreligiousornotreligious,ratherthanreligious.Despitehigheremploymentrates,socio-economically,theonlinesamplerespondentsiden-tifythemselvesasstrugglingabitmore,onaverage,thanrespondentsintheF2Fsurvey,

inresponsetoaquestionaboutwhethertheirhouseholdmakesenoughmoneytomeet

2.Inonesense,allrespondentsinthissurveyaretherefore“employed.”However,completingsurveysforcompensationlikelytakesupnomorethanasmallportionofrespondents’timeandcanbecompletedfromhome.Whilehousewivesandtheunemployedareunderrepresentedinthesample,around19%offemalerespondentsself-identifiedasprimarilyhousewives,and12.5%ofallrespondentsself-identifiedasunemployed.

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expensesand/orsave.Theonlinesurveyismostunrepresentativeinitsover-inclusionofurbanresidents(92%,versus65%intheF2Fsample)andthosewithatleastsomehighereducation(43%,versusonly13%intheF2Fsample).Itisthusimportanttointerprettheresultsofthissurveyasreflectingtheattitudesandbeliefsofaprimarilyurban,relativelyeducatedsample.Mostanalyses(unlessotherwiseindicated)nonethelessadjustthedatatobetterapproximateanationalprobabilitysampleusingtheweightingcriteriafollowedbytheArabBarometertoadjusttheirsurveysconductedin2020-2021viatelephone,basedondemographicsinthe2014MoroccanCensusandthe(facetoface)2018Arab

Barometersurvey.DetailsoftheweightingprocedureareintheAppendix.

Thepre-registeredanalysisplanforthesurvey

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andtheAppendixincludedetailsaboutthesurveyquestionnaireandthequestionsusedtoconstructthevariablesusedintheanalysisbelow.Thefollowingsectionsbrieflyintroducetherelevantitems’wording,

scales,andmodification.

3.2TimeUseSurveyItems

Abatteryofquestionsonthesurveyaskedrespondentstoindicatewhointheirhouseholdusuallydideachofthefollowingtasks(inparenthesesaretheshortnamesforeachofthesevariablesusedinsubsequentanalysesandvisualizations).Followingrecentworkthathashighlightedtheimportanceofcognitivelabororthe“mentalload”asbothdistinctfromphysicallaborand,inothersettings,morelikelytobeundertakenpredominantlybywomen(CatalanoWeeks2022;Daminger2019),Iincludedbothphysicalandmentalor

managerialtasks:

Physicaltasks

.Minorhomerepairs(fixingappliances,brokendoorsorwindows,etc.)(repairs)

.Buyinggroceriesandotherdailynecessities(groceries)

.Cleaningthehouse(cleaning)

.Cooking(cooking)

3.Availableat

https://osf.io/b6ntz/?view_only=1ac20cd71c714ea4bc7e8f43db6a5dd2.

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.Payingbills(note:includedasbothaphysicalandmental/managerialtask)(bills)

.Helpingchildrenwithschoolwork(homework)

.Caringforsickfamilymembers(caring)

Mental/managerialtasks

.Planningwhatfoodtobuy(foodplanning)

.Planningthefamilybudget(budget)

.Payingbills(bills)

.Planningclothingpurchases(clothing)

.Researchingoptionsforchildren’seducation(education)

.Decidingwhensomeoneshouldseeadoctor(doctor)

Respondentschosewhetherthey,theirspouse,theyandtheirspouseequally,amaidorservant,theirmother,theirfather,orsomeoneelseusuallydideachoftheabovetasks.“Payingbills”isincludedasbothaphysicalandamental/managerialtasks,asinMorocco,payingbillsstillfrequentlyinvolvesphysicallyreportingtoabusinessorpostalofficeinordertomakeapayment.Onlycurrentlymarriedrespondentswereaskedwhoisprimarilyresponsibleformakingdecisionsaboutchildren’seducationandhelpingthemwithhomework.AppendixFigures

1

to

3

displaythedistributionofresponsesforeach

item.

3.3AttitudesandPerceivedNormsSurveyItems

Thesurveyalsoaskedrespondentstoindicatewhethertheystronglyagree,agree,dis-agree,orstronglydisagreewiththefollowingitems(inparenthesesaretheshorthand

namesusedtorefertothesequestionsinsubsequentanalysesandvisualizations):

.Takingcareofthehomeandchildrenisawoman’sprimaryresponsibility.(primary)

.Itisimportantforfatherstobeinvolvedindailyhouseworkandchildcaretasks(forexample,taskssuchascleaning,feeding,bathing,anddressing).(daily)

.Whenmothersworkoutsidethehome,childrensuffer.(suffer)

.Itcanbegoodforthefamilywhenmothersworkoutsidethehome.(workgood)

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.Amanshouldhavethelastwordinhouseholddecision-makingaboutfinances.(lastword)

.Housewivesshouldbepaidfortheirhouseholdlabor.(paywomen)

.Womenshouldhaveasmuchopportunityasmentotakeabreakfromhouseholdresponsibilitiestospendtimewithfriends.(leisure)

.Menwhotakeonmorehouseholdtaskstosupportwomenpursuingcareersarenotverymanly.(manly)

Responsestotheseitemsconstitutethepersonalattitudes(PA)indicators.Ialsoaskwhetherrespondentsbelievethat(1)mostMoroccanwomen,(2)mostMoroccanmen,and(3)“peopleinyourneighborhood”currentlystronglyagree,agree,disagree,orstronglydisagreewiththesamesetofstatements.Responsestotheseitemsconsti-tutetheperceivednormsindicators.Toavoidsystematicquestionordereffects,whetherrespondentswereaskedaboutpersonalattitudesorperceivednormsfirstwasrandomizedusingQualtrics’built-inrandomization,aswastheorderinwhichrespondentswereaskedabouttheirperceptionsofeachreferencegroup,andtheorderinwhichtheindividual

surveyitemswerepresentedwithineachgrouping.

Foreachrespondent,Igenerateanaggregatepersonalattitudesscoreandseparateperceivednormsscoreswithrespecttoeachreferencegroup(men,women,andneighbors).First,Ire-coderesponsestotheitemssuchthat0=stronglyagreeand3=stronglydisagreewhenthestatementaswrittenisaconservativeviewpoint,andsuchthat0=stronglydisagreeand3=stronglyagreewhenthestatementaswrittenisanegalitarianviewpoint.Highernumericalvaluesthenrepresentmoreegalitarianviewpointsforallitems.Thescoresarethemeanresponsestosurveyitemsafterthisre-coding.

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Foreachrespondent,Ialsocalculateapooledperceivednormforeachindividualitemtakingtheaverageofrespondents’perceivednormsofmen,women,andneighbors.Fromthis,Icalculateanoverallpooledperceivednormsscorewhichistheaveragepooledperceivednormacrossalleightsurveyitems.Themeanvaluesofthesescoresamongmaleand

femalerespondents,respectively,arevisualizedinAppendixFigures

6

to

8.

4.Allquestionswereforcedchoice(respondentshadtoselectananswertocontinuethesurvey),sotherearenomissingvaluesonthepersonalattitudesorperceivednormsitems.

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Followingabriefinformationalintervention(discussedinsection

5

),respondentsre-viewedthesamebatteryofitemsaboutthegenderroleswithinandoutsidethehome,askingwhetherrespondentsbelievethat(1)mostMoroccanwomenand(2)mostMo-roccanmenwillstronglyagree,agree,disagree,orstronglydisagreefiveyearsfromnow.Futureperceivednormsscoreswerecalculatedfromtheseresponsesinthesamemannerasdescribedaboveforcurrentperceivednormswithrespecttoeachreferencegroupand

arevisualizedinAppendixFigure

9.

3.4DemographicCovariates

Inallregressionanalysesbelowthatcontrolfordemographiccovariates,Iincludethe

followingpredictors(henceforththesearereferredtoasthe“standardcovariates”):

.Dummyvariableformalerespondents(withfemalerespondentsasthereferencecategory).

.Agecategories:18-25(referencecategory),26-35,36-45,46-55,55+.

.Dummyvariableforurbanrespondents(withruralrespondentsasthereferencecategory).

.Educationcategories:preparatoryeducationorless(referencecategory);secondaryortechnicaleducation;bachelor’sdegreeorhigher.

.Subjectivesocio-economicstatus:avariabletakingthevalues1-4basedonanswerstoaquestionaboutwhetherthefamily’sincomecoversnecessaryexpensesandtheycansave,wherea4indicatesthegreatestsocio-economicstability.

.Dummyvariableforrespondentswhoarecurrentlyemployed,withallotherrespon-dentcategories(housewives,students,retired,unemployedorother)combinedasthereferencecategory.

.Dummyvariableforcurrentlymarriedrespondents(withallotherrespondentsinthereferencecategory).

.Dummyvariableforrespondentswithatleastonechild(withareferencecategoryofnochildren).

.Religiosity:avariabletakingvaluesfrom1(notreligious)to3(religious)asself-reported.

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4DivergentPerceptionsoftheUnequalBurden

Surveyrespondentsreportthatwomenundertakethebulkofunpaidlaborintheirhouse-holds.Yetperceptionsofrelativecontributionsofmenandwomendivergeamongmarriedrespondents.Inresponsetothehouseholdtaskquestions,mostmarriedrespondentsre-portedthateitherthey,theirspouse,ortheyandtheirspouseequallywereprimarilyresponsibleformosttasks.Consistentwithfindingsfromotherstudiescomparingself-reportedcontributionstohouseholdlabor(Barroso2021;CatalanoWeeks2022;CerratoandCifre2018),thereisagapinmarriedmen’sandwomen’sperceptionsofcontribu-tionstohouseholdlaboracrossdifferenttasks.Figures

1

and

2

displaytheproportionofmaleandfemalemarriedrespondents,respectively,statingthateachtasksiscompleted

primarilybythemselves,bytheirspouse,orbythemselvesandtheirspouseequally.

Figure1:MarriedRespondents:PrimaryResponsibilityforTasks(Self)

Note:Thefigurescomparetheweightedproportionofmaleandfemalemarriedre-spondentswhoindicated,foreachtask,theytheyareusuallyresponsibleforthetaskthemselves.

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Figure2:MarriedRespondents:PrimaryResponsibilityforTasks(Spouse)

Note:Thefigurescomparetheweightedproportionofmaleandfemalemarriedrespon-dentswhoindicated,foreachtask,thattheirspouseisusuallyresponsibleforthetask

Figure3:MarriedRespondents:PrimaryResponsibilityforTasks(Equal)

Note:Thefigurecomparestheweightedproportionofmaleandfemalemarriedre-spondentswhoindicated,foreachtask,thattheyandtheirspouseequallyareusuallyresponsibleforthetask.

Marriedwomenaremorelikelytostatethattheyareprimarilyresponsiblefortasksthanmenaretoacknowledgethattheirspousesare