英语语言学-试卷

PAGEPAGE5语言学概论试卷（一）Fillinthefollowingblankswithappropriatewordsandexpressions.(10%,onepointforeachblank)The__________studyofalanguageisconcernedwitha“state”ofalanguageataparticularpointoftime.__________knowledgeisanativespeaker’sintuitionaboutthesoundsandsoundpatternsofhislanguage.Whenthevocalcordsarenearlytouchingeachotherbutnotcompletelyclosed,theair-streampassingthroughtheglottishastocausevibration.Thesoundsmadeinthiswayarecalled______________.Theloweringofthesoftpalatebringsabouttheproductionof________consonants.Wecandefineaphonemeasaminimal________unitinthesoundsystemofalanguage.__________,oneofthesuprasegmentalfeaturesinEnglish,referstothephoneticboundaryfeaturesthatmaymarkgrammaticalunitssuchaswordandclause.___________aretherealizationsofaspecificmorpheme.Thelinguisticformsthathavesubstitutionalrelationsbelongtothesame__________________.Thelinguistswhointendtofindouthowasentenceisgeneratedbyrulesfollowthetheoryof______________.Adeepstructurecorrespondsmostcloselytothe________________ofwords.Choosetherightanswerthatfitseachblankinthesentencesfromthefourchoicesgiven.(25%,onepointforeach)Thesound[v]isa(n)________.oralvoicedalveolaraffricate C. oralvoicedlabiodentalfricativeoralvoicelessdentalliquid D. nasalvoicedpostalveolarfricativeDentalsaredifferentfromvelarsintermsof________.thepositionofthesoftvelumthepresenceortheabsenceofvocal-cordvibrationtheplaceofarticulationthemannerofarticulationWhichofthefollowingisaminimalpair?________.beatandbought C. /mi:t/and/ti:m//li:v/and/fi:l/ D. /sit/and/su:p/Thesound[j]canbedescribedas________intermsoffeaturespecifications.[+continuant],[-vocalic],[+consonantal],[-anterior][-consonantal],[+vocalic],[+continuant],[+coronal][-consonantal],[-vocalic],[-anterior],[-nasal][-consonantal],[-vocalic],[-voiced],[+coronal]Theenvironmentofthesound[m]intheword[‘medisin]canbedescribedas________.[‘-edisin] C. [#-edisin][#-e] D. [-e]Thesound______isanoralvoicelesspalatalplosive.[p] C. [k][c] D. [t]Whichofthefollowingisnotaminimalpair?________./æsk/and/ɑ:sk/ C. bateandbat/sit/and/sæt/ D. fitandknitTheworddifficultfromdifficultyinvolvesthewordformationprocessof________.blending C. clippingcompounding D. back-formationBysayinglanguageis________,wemeanthatthereisnologicalreasonwhyacertainlinguisticformshouldrepresentacertainlinguisticmeaningandthereisnoreasonwhyacertainlinguisticmeaningshouldberepresentedbyacertainlinguisticformeither.creative C. symbolicarbitrary D. changeableThepurposeof__________linguisticsistoestablishamodelthatdescribestherulesofoneparticularlanguage.applied C. generalstructural D. descriptiveThesound[i]canbedescribedasa(n)________vowel.oralcentralhighunroundedlaxnasalfrontmidroundedtenseoralfronthighunroundedlaxoralbacklowroundedtenseWhichofthefollowingwordsinvolvestheprocessofblending?________.agreementfromagree+mentheliportfromhelicopter+airportblackboardfromblack+boardVOAfromVoiceofAmericaAccordingtoChomsky,________is“thespeaker-hearer’sknowledgeofhislanguage”.competence C. parolelangue D. performance________phoneticsstudieshowaspeechsoundisproducesbythevocalorgans.visual C. acousticauditory D. articulatory________refertothesoundsproducedbyraisingthebackofthetonguetothesoftpalate.velars C. alveopalatalspalatals D. glottalsIntermsoffeaturespecifications,bilabials,labiodentals,dentalsandalveolarsareallmarkedwith________.[+coronal] C. [+anterior][-aspirated] D. [-nasal]Iftwoormoresounds____________,theyareincontrastivedistribution.canoccurinthesameenvironmentandthesubstitutionofonesoundforanotherdoesnotcauseachangeofmeaningcanoccurinthesameenvironmentandthesubstitutionofonesoundforanothercausesachangeofmeaningcanneveroccurinthesameenvironmentcanalwaysappearinthesameenvironment________featuresareusedtodescribephonemes.Distinctive C. PhoneticSemantic D. PhonologicalDifferentfromintonationlanguages,tonelanguagesarelanguagesthatusepitchtocontrastmeaningat________level.sentence C. phraseword D. phraseorsentence________morphemesrefertothemorphemesthatcanstandaloneasindividualwords.Affixational C. BoundRoot D. FreeSomenewwordsarecreatedsimplybychangingtheirpartsofspeech.Theprocessinvolvediscalled________.affixation C. conversioncompounding D. blendingThe________relationisakindofrelationbetweenlinguisticformsinasentenceandlinguisticformsoutsidethesentence.sequential C. hierarchicalsyntagmatic D. substitutionalTheconstituentwhichisalwayspresentontherightsideofthearrowinaphrasestructureruleiscalleda(n)________pulsory C. immediate ultimate D. optional Transformationalrulesperformallthefollowingthreekindsofoperationsexcept________.rearrangingthesentenceelementsaddinganewelementtothephrasemarkerdeletinganelementfromthephrasemarkercreatingnewsemanticrolesforthesentenceelementsInadeepstructurephrasemarkerofasentence,ifaphraseonlycontainsoneword,itisalwayslabeledfirstwitha_________category.lexical C. non-lexicalphrase D. functionalJudgewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsistrueorfalse.WriteTfortrueorFforfalseintheblankofferedaftereachstatement.(15%,onepointforeach)Thesound[w]isanoralvoicedbilabialglide.________Generallinguisticsdealswiththewholehumanlanguage.________Changeisnotnaturalforlivinglanguagesandsuchachangeisasignofcorruptionanddecay.________AlltheEnglishwordsarenotsymbolic.________Whentwoarticulatorsarebroughttogethertoformacompleteclosurewhichisfollowedbyasuddenrelease,thesoundsarecalledaffricates.________Thesound[æ]canbespecifiedas[-high],[+low],[+front],[-back],[-rounded]and[-tense].________Thesoundsthatareinfreevariationareallophonesofthesamephoneme.________Chineseisatonelanguage.________Byprefixation,wedeleteasuffixfromanapparentlycomplexforminsteadofaddingasuffix.Itmayberegardedastheoppositecaseofsuffixation.________Inflectionalaffixesnevercauseachangeingrammaticalclass.________Inadynamicalstudy,wemakestructuraldescriptionsofsentencestoillustratethepartsofsentencesandtherelationshipsamongthem.________Aphrasealwayscontainsmorethanoneword.Itcannotbeasingleword.________Asurfacestructuregivestheformofasentenceasitisusedincommunication.________Theverbsinverbphrasesarecalledmainverbs;theotherverbsarehelpingverbs._______T-PassivemustbeappliedbeforeT-Yes/Noquestion.________Answerthefollowingquestions.(20%)Howdoesalinguistconstructarule?(7%)Howcanwedecideaminimalpairoraminimalset?(6%)Explaintheinterrelationsbetweensemanticandstructuralclassificationsofmorphemes.(7%)Practicalwork.(30%)Writethesymbolthatcorrespondstoeachofthefollowingphoneticdescriptions:(6%)avoicelessdentalfricative ____anoralhighbacklaxvowel ____avoicedalveo-palatalaffricate ____anasallowbackroundedvowel ____analveolarnasal ____anoralfronthightensevowel ____Changethefollowingphonemictranscriptionsintophonetictranscriptions:(8%)/’btl/ _________________________________/pi:k/ _________________________________/milk/ _________________________________/iv/ _________________________________/’nutbuk/ _________________________________/eit/ _________________________________/skin/ _________________________________/mæn/ _________________________________Dividethefollowingwordsintoseparatemorphemesbyplacinga“+”betweeneachmorphemeandthenext:(4%)Example: blackboard=black+boardtelevision =____________children=____________deer(inpluralform)=____________manage=____________Drawthedeepstructurephrasemarkersofthefollowingsentences:(12%)Thecarwasbeingrepaired.WasthearticlewrittenbyHelen?Thestudentmighthavebeenpraisedbytheteacher.Whathasbeendonetothecar?语言学概论试卷（一）答案（每空1分，共10分）synchronic 6. JuncturePhonological 7. Allomorphsvoicedsounds 8. syntacticcategorynasal 9. Transformational-GenerativeGrammardistinctive 10. meaningfulgrouping本项为填空题，若有拼写错误、大小写错误，都不得分。第1题答案亦可为：descriptive第9题答案亦可为：TGGrammar（每题1分，共25分）1-5: CCACB6-10: BADBD11-15: CBADA16-20: CBABD21-25: CDADB（每题1分，共15分）1-5: TTFTF6-10: TFTFT11-15: FFTTT（共20分）Toconstructarule,thelinguiststartswithcollectingdata.（1.5分）Basedonthedatacollected,hemayconstructaverysimpleruleasatentativeversion.（1.5分）Thenheexaminesthetentativeruleagainstfurtherdata.Iftheadditionaldatadonotagreewithit,hehastomodifyit.（1.5分）Hedeepsontestingtheruleand,accordingly,revisingtheruleuntiltherulecanaccountforalltherelevantdatacollected.（1.5分）Verylikely,thedatagatheredarenotcomplete.Thus,theruleformedisopentofurthermodifications.（1分）Todecideaminimalpair,weshouldcheckwhethertwoformsmeetthefollowingthreeconditions:theyaredifferentinmeaning;（2分）theydifferonlyinonesoundsegment;（2分）thedifferentsoundsoccurinthesamepositioninthestrings.（2分）Whenagroupofwordsmeetallthethreeconditions,theyarecalledaminimalset.Semanticallyspeaking,morphemesaregroupedintorootsandaffixes.（0.5分）Structurallyspeaking,theyaredividedintofreemorphemesandboundmorphemes.（0.5分）Allfreemorphemesareroots,（1.5分）butnotallrootsarefreemorphemes.（1.5分）Allaffixesareboundmorphemes,（1.5分）butnotallboundmorphemesareaffixes.（1.5分）（共30分）（共6分）[θ] 4) [][u] 5) [n][] 6) [i:]（共8分）[‘b?] 5) [‘nut﹁buk]or[‘nut﹁buk﹁][pi:c]or[pi:c﹁] 6) [eiθ][mik]or[mik﹁] 7) [scin][iv] 8) [mæn]（共4分）television=tele+vis+ionchildren=child+r+endeer(inpluralform)=deer+/ø/manage=manage（共12分）SNP AUX VPN TenseProg V NP Det N Someone Pastbe-INGrepairthe carSNP AUX VP N Tense V NP Det N Helen Past write the articleSNP AUX VP Det N Tense Modal Perf V NP Det N Theteacher Past may have-EN praise the studentSNP AUX VPN Tense Perf V Object PP P NP Det N Someone Present have-EN do Δ to the car语言学概论试卷（二）Fillinthefollowingblankswithappropriatewordsandexpressions.(10%,onepointforeachblank)__________linguisticsstudiesthewholehumanlanguageandaimsatdevelopingatheorythatdescribestherulesofhumanlanguageingeneral.AccordingtoFerdinanddeSaussure,linguisticsshouldinvestigatetheabstractsystemofalanguage,whichiscalled________.Intermsofthepresenceorabsenceofvocal-cordvibration,theEnglishconsonantscanbegroupedintotwokinds:_____________and_______________.__________referstothespacebetweenthevocalcords.The____________ofasoundconsistsofallthepossibleenvironmentsinwhichthesoundconcernedmayoccur.__________transcriptionsincludeallthelinguisticallyrelevantfeaturesofsounds.Technically,amorphemeisdefinedasaminimalmeaningfulunitinthe__________systemofalanguage.Inahierarchicalstructurediagramofasentence,theconstituentsconnectedbythetwolineswhicharebranchingfromthesamepointarecalledthe__________oftheformabovethatpoint.Inthecourseofgeneratingthedeepstructureofasentence,thephrasestructurerulesareapplied__________inthesensethateverytimeonlyoneruleisapplied.Choosetherightanswerthatfitseachblankinthesentencesfromthefourchoicesgiven.(25%,onepointforeach)Thesound[z]isa(n)__________.oralvoicelessalveolarglide C. oralvoicedalveopalatalaffricatenasalvoicedpostalveolarplosive D. oralvoicedalveolarfricativeWhichofthefollowingisaminimalpair?________.thinandwin C. sheepandsleep/sæd/and/fæt/ D. /ten/and/net/Thesound[r]canbedescribedas__________intermsoffeaturespecifications.[+consonantal],[+vocalic],[+continuant],[+coronal][-vocalic],[+consonantal],[+voiced],[-aspirated][-consonantal],[+vocalic],[-anterior],[-nasal][+consonantal],[+vocalic],[+anterior],[-aspirated]Theenvironmentofthesound[k]intheword[‘mi:kli]canbedescribedas________.[‘mi:-li] C. [i:-l][mi:-l] D. [i:-li]Whichofthefollowingwordsinvolvestheprocessofacronymy?________.SARSfromsevereacuterespiratorysyndromeeditfromeditorproffromprofessortelecastfromtelevision+broadcastThesound________isanoralvoicelesspostalveolaraffricate.[tr] C. [s][h] D. [t]Theliquidsaredifferentfromglidesintermsof________.thepositionofthesoftvelumthepresenceortheabsenceofvocal-cordvibrationtheplaceofarticulationthemannerofarticulationWhichofthefollowingisnotaminimalpair?________./mi:t/and/met/ C. /dæns/and/dɑ:ns//fi:l/and/fel/ D. /beit/and/bit/Theword“affixation”involvestheword-formationprocessof________.conversion C. clippingaffixation D. compounding________isthesciencethatisconcernedwiththesoundsystemofalanguage.Morphology C. PhonologySemantics D. PhoneticsWhichofthefollowingsoundscanbedescribedasanasalhighbackroundedtensevowel?________.[u:] C. [ɑ:][u] D. []Changesoflanguageinthe________systemarethemostobvious.sound C. syntacticlexical D. grammaticalTheinitialworkforanylinguisticdescriptionis________.drawingconclusions C. testingthehypothesisformingahypothesis D. collectingdata________arethesoundswhichareproducedbybringingthetipofthetonguetotherearpartofthealveolarridge.Alveolars C. Alveo-palatalsPost-alveolars D. Palatals________arevowelswhichconsistofamovementorglidefromonevoweltoanother.Diphthongs C. SimplevowelsTriphthongs D. MonophthongsIntermsof________,vowelsaregroupedintotensevowelsandlaxvowels.velumstate C. tensionofthemusclesatpharynxtongueposition D. liproundingPhonesaretherealizationsof________.phonemesingeneral C. morphemesingeneralaspecificphoneme D. aparticularmorphemeThe________featuresarecomponentsofaphonemethatcancontrastwordsandarenotpredictable.semantic C. redundantdistinctive D. unpredictableAphonologicalruleshouldpresentthefollowingkindsofinformationexcept______.theclassofsoundsaffectedbytherulethephoneticchangesthataretooccurthephoneticandthephonemictranscriptionsthephonemicenvironmentinwhichthephoneticchangeswilltakeplaceThetwominimalmeaningfulsoundsequences/haus/and/hauz/canberegardedastwo______ofthesamemorpheme｛haus｝.morphs C. phonesallomorphs D. allophonesAzeromorphisamorphthathas_______________.formbutnomeaningneitherformnormeaninggrammaticalfunctionbutnolexicalmeaningmeaningbutnoformThefollowingwordscontaininflectionalaffixesexcept________.taller C. assignmentMary’s D. studentsStatically,wemakestructuraldescriptionsofsentencestoillustratethepartsofsentencesandtherelationshipsamongthem.Suchakindofstudyofsentencesfollowsthetheoryof________.Structurallinguistics C. generallinguisticsTGGrammar D. descriptivelinguisticsAccordingtoChomsky’sTGGrammar,inthedeepstructureofasentence,verbsalwaystakethe________.presentform C. inflectionalaffixesbase form D. pastformInderivingasurfacestructurefromitsdeepstructure,weneedtoapplyaseriesoftransformationalrules.Ifwewanttoobtainwell-formedsentences,wehavetoapply________.T-Passive C. T-ImperativeT-Negation D. T-AffixJudgewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsistrueorfalse.WriteTfortrueorFforfalseintheblankofferedaftereachstatement.(15%,onepointforeach)Thesound[p]isanoralvoicelessalveolarplosive.________Therelationshipbetweenthesoundsandtheirmeaningisarbitrary.________Adiachronicstudyofalanguageisconcernedwithastateofalanguageataparticularpointoftime.________Onlythestandardvarietyisthepureformofalanguage.________Acousticphoneticsisconcernedwithhowasoundistransmittedfromthespeaker’smouthtothelistener’sears.________Post-alveolarsaredifferentfromalveolarsintermsofplaceofarticulation.________Iftheinitialsoundisanaffricate,thenextsoundmustbeavowel.________Thephonemes/pbtdk/donotformanaturalclass.________Amorphemeisaminimalmeaningfulunitinthelexicalsystemofalanguage.________Derivationalaffixesservetoindicategrammaticalrelations.________ThestaticstudyofsentencesfollowsthetheoryofStructuralLinguistics.________Ifaphrasecontainsonlyoneword,itislabeledwithalexicalcategory.________AccordingtoTGGrammar,togeneratesentences,westartwithsurfacestructuresandthentransformthemintodeepstructures.________Adeepstructurecorrespondsmostcloselytothemeaningfulgroupingofwords.________IntheruleT-Affix,theterm‘affix’referstotheaffixesofmainverbs.________IV.Answerthefollowingquestions.(20%)Listthedifferencesbetweensurfacestructureanddeepstructureofasentence.(8%)Whatarethedifferencesbetweeninflectionalandderivationalaffixesintermsofbothfunctionandposition?（8%）Howdoescompetencedifferfromperformance?(4%)Practicalwork.(30%)Whatcommonfeaturespecificationsdosoundsineachgroupshare?(4%)[f] [m] [r]Thecommonfeaturespecificationsofthesounds[f],[m]and[r]are:___________________________________________________________.[i:] [e] [ɑ:]Thecommonfeaturespecificationsofthesounds[i:],[e]and[ɑ:]are:___________________________________________________________.Judgeaccordingtothedatawhetherthetwosounds[l]and[l]aredifferentphonemesorallophonesofthesamephoneme:(9%)[l] [][li:d] [felt][let] [milk][sli:p] [wel][split] [fi:l][lai] [wil]AnalyzethefollowingwordsbyICanalysis:(5%)replacementsdecentralizeduntrulydisapprovalirreplaceableDrawthedeepstructurephrasemarkersforthefollowingsentences:(12%)Istheteacherworkingintheoffice?Wherecouldthekeyhavebeenput?Shaveyourself.Thewatchhasnotbeenrepaired.语言学概论试卷（二）答案（每空1分，共10分）General 6. Phoneticlangue 7. grammaticalvoicelessconsonants,voicedconsonants 8. immediateconstituentsGlottis 9. sequentiallydistribution 本项为填空题，若有拼写错误、大小写错误，都不得分。第8题答案亦可为：ICs（每题1分，共25分）1-5: DAACA6-10: ADCBC11-15: DBDBA16-20: CABCB21-25: DCABD（每题1分，共15分）1-5: FTFFT6-10: TTTFF11-15: TFFTF（共20分）Asurfacestructurecorrespondsmostcloselytothelineararrangementofwordsastheyarepronounced;（1分）adeepstructurecorrespondsmostcloselytothemeaningfulgroupingofwords.（1分）Asurfacestructureisrelativelyconcrete,（1分）butadeepstructureisabstract.（1分）Asurfacestructuregivestheformofasentenceasitisusedincommunication,（1分）butadeepstructuregivesthemeaningofasentence.（1分）Asurfacestructureispronounceable,（1分）butadeepstructureisnotpronounceable.（1分）Themajordifferencebetweeninflectionalaffixesandderivationalonesaresummarizedintermsoftwoaspects:functionandposition.Functionallyspeaking,theformerservetoindicategrammaticalrelations,suchasnumber,gender,tense,aspect,caseanddegree.（1分）Whentheyareattachedtoothermorphemes,theyneverproducenewwords（1分）andnevercauseachangeingrammaticalclass.（1分）Incontrast,derivationalaffixesareusedtocreatenewwords.（1分）Manyofthemcanchangethegrammaticalclassofawordandtheothersdonot.（1分）Intermsofposition,inflectionalaffixesinEnglisharealwayssuffixes（1分）butderivationalonescanbeeitherprefixesorsuffixes.（1分）Whenthesetwotypesofaffixesbothappearinthesameword,theinflectionaloneisalwaysafterthederivationalone.（1分）CompetenceandperformancearetwotermsgivenbyChomsky.Thedifferencebetweenthemcanbesummarizedasfollows:Competenceis“thespeaker-hearer’sknowledgeofhislanguage”,(1分)whileperformanceis“theactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations”.（1分）Competenceisabstractandnotdirectlyobserved,（1分）whileperformanceisconcreteanddirectlyobservable.（1分）（共30分）(共4分)Thecommonfeaturespecificationsofthesounds[f],[m]and[r]are:[+consonantal]and[-aspirated].Thecommonfeaturespecificationsofthesounds[i:],[e]and[ɑ:]are:[-rounded]and[+tense].本项每小题2分，两个特征都写对，得2分，否则，不得分。（共9分）Step1: Question:Arethesounds[l]and[]incontrastivedistribution?（1分） Answer:No,becausethereisnominimalpair.（1分）Step2: Question:Aretheyalwaysinfreevariation?（1分） Answer:No.（1分）Step3: Question:Aretheyincomplementarydistribution?（1分）Answer:Yes,becausetheyneveroccurinthesameenvironment.Theclearsound[l]onlyoccursbeforevowelswhilethedarksound[k]occursinotherenvironments.（1分） Step4: Question:Aretheyphoneticallysimilar?（1分） Answer:Yes,becausebothofthemareoralvoicedalveolarliquids.（1分） Conclusion: Thetwosoundsaretwoallophonesofthesamephoneme/l/.（1分）（共5分）replacements 4) disapprovalreplacement s disapprove al replace ment dis approve re placedecentralized 5) irreplaceabledecentralize d ir replaceable de centralize replace able central ize re place centr aluntrulyuntrue ly un true（共12分）SNP AUX VP Det N Tense Prog V PP P NP Det N The teacher Present be-ING work in the officeSNP AUX VP N Tense Modal Perf V NP Adverbofplace Det N Someone Past can have-EN put the key ΔSNP AUX VPN Tense V NP NYou Present shave youSNP AUX VPN Tense Perf V NP Det N Someone Present have-EN repair the watch语言学概论试卷（三）Fillinthefollowingblankswithappropriatewordsandexpressions.(10%,onepointforeachblank)Thetwopartsthatmakeupasymbolareaconcrete______andthe______thatitconveys.Therelationshipbetweenthespeechsoundsandtheirmeaningis______.Intermsofthevelumstate,vowelsaredividedinto______vowelsand______vowels.Iftwoormoresoundsneverappearinthesameenvironment,thentheyaresaidtobein______.Intermsoffunction,affixescanbeclassifiedinto______affixesand______affixes.Therearethreesyntacticrelations.The______relationshowsustheinnerlayeringofsentences.Inaphrasestructurerule,theconstituentwhichmaybepresentorabsentontherightsideofthearrowiscalleda(n)______constituent.Choosetherightanswerthatfitseachblankinthesentencesfromthefourchoicesgiven.Writethelettermarkingtheanswerinthebrackets.(25%,onepointforeach)Anativespeakerusuallypossessesfourtypesofknowledgeabouthisownlanguage.______knowledgeisanativespeaker’sintuitionaboutwhetherasentenceisgrammaticalornot. ()A.Semantic B.SyntacticC.Morphological D.PhonologicalPhoneticshasthreesub-branches.______phoneticsisconcernedwithhowasoundisperceivedbythevocalorgans. ()A.Articulatory B.Acoustic C.Auditory D.VisualLabio-dentalsaresounds______. ()formedbybringingthetipofthetonguetotherearpartofthealveolarridgeproducedbybothlipsproducedbythecontactbetweentheupperteethandthelowerliparticulatedbyraisingthetiporthebladeofthetonguetothealveolarridgeAllophonesaredefinedas______. ()therealizationsofaparticularmorphemetherealizationsofphonemesingeneralminimaldistinctiveunitsinthesoundsystemofalanguagetherealizationsofaspecificphonemeIf______,thentheyaresaidtobeinfreevariation. ()twosoundscanoccurinthesameenvironmentandthesubstitutionofonesoundfortheotherdoesnotcauseachangeofmeaningtwosoundscanoccurinthesameenvironmentandthesubstitutionofonesoundfortheothercausesachangeofmeaningtwosoundscanneveroccurinthesameenvironmenttwosoundscanoccurincontrastiveenvironmentsFreemorphemesare______. ()neverfoundaloneaswords,butarealwaysjoinedwithothermorphemeslexicallydependentonrootsanddonotconveythefundamentalmeaningsofwordsthemostimportantpartsofwordsthatcarrytheprincipalmeaningsthosethatcanstandbythemselvesasindividualwordsIftwosoundsare________,theyaresaidtobeallophonesofthesamephoneme. ()incontrastivedistributionalwaysinfreevariationphoneticallysimilarincomplementarydistributionConversionreferstotheprocessinwhich______. ()newwordsarecreatedsimplybychangingtheirpartsofspeechanewwordisformedbyputtinganaffixtothebasetwoormoreseparatewordsareconjoinedtoproduceaformwhichisusedasasinglewordwedeleteasuffixfromanapparentlycomplexforminsteadofaddingasuffixTheparadigmaticrelation________. ()referstothesequentialcharacteristicofspeechisakindofrelationbetweenlinguisticformsinasentenceandlinguisticformsoutsidethesentencereferstothelinearorderingofthewordsandthephraseswithinasentenceshowsustheinnerlayeringofsentencesInahierarchicalstructurediagramofasentence,______arecalledtheimmediateconstituentsoftheformabovethatpoint. ()theformswhicharealwayspresentontherightsideofaphrasestructureruletheformsattheword-leveltheformsattheword-levelandthephrase-leveltheformsconnectedbythetwolinesthatarebranchingfromthesamepointThesound______isavoicelessden