联合国粮农组织-森林-水管理指南（英）-2021-184正式版

AAguideguidetotoforestforest––waterwatermanagementmanagement

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Aguidetoforest–watermanagement

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Coverphotograph:©FAO/MohamadPazi

iii

Contents

Foreword

vii

Acknowledgements

viii

Abbreviationsandacronyms

ix

Executivesummary

x

1Introduction

1

Theimportanceofforest–waterrelationships

3

Managingforestsforwater

6

2Monitoringandreportingontheforest–waternexus

7

Theglobalsituation

8

Howtomeasureforest–waterrelationships

11

Riparianforests–anewglobalmeasureformonitoringforestsandwater

16

3Managingforestsforwater

31

Managingforestsprimarilyforwater

34

Watershed-basedforestmanagement

47

Theco-benefitsofmanagingforestsforwater

57

Understandingtrade-offsandsynergies

61

Forestfiresandwater

68

Otherdisturbanceswithimpactsonwater

73

4Valuingwaterfromforests

75

Estimatingthevalueofforest–waterecosystemservices

76

Policyandmarket-basedinstrumentstoincentivizeforest

hydrologicservices

83

Managingtrade-offsanddecision-supportsystems

95

Communicatingandbrandingforestsforwaterprojectsandinitiatives

100

5Keyecosystemsforforest–watermanagement

107

Mangroveforests

107

Peatlandforests

113

Tropicalmontanecloudforests

120

Drylandforests

126

References

131

Annex1.Listoforganizationsthatparticipated

inwritingthereport

166

iv Aguidetoforest–watermanagement

Tables

1.1

Classificationofwaterservices

5

2.1

SustainableDevelopmentGoaltargetsrelatedtoforestsandwater

8

2.2

Toptencountriesandterritoriesfortheproportionoftotal

forestareadesignatedprimarilyforsoilandwaterprotection

11

4.1

Estimatedaverageandaggregatevaluesofvariouswater

services,selectedbiomes,1997and2011

76

4.2

Totalwaterflowregulationby90typesofvegetation–soil–slope

complexesinthedryandrainyseasons,anditseconomicimpact

80

4.3

Estimatedincreaseintreatmentcostduetochange

frombaseline(forested)conditionstourbanlanduse,

ConverseReservoir,Alabama,between1992and2004

81

4.4

Netpresentvalueoflossofagriculturalyieldoverthe

lifeoftheparkduetolowandhighintensityflooding

82

4.5

Typesofpaymentschemeforwatershedservices

85

4.6

Toolboxesanddatabasesonpaymentschemes

forwatershedservices

92

4.7

Examplesoflegislationthatincludeswaterfees

forforestwatershedmanagement

93

4.8

Forestmanagementdecision-supportsystemspotentiallysuitable

foraddressingtrade-offsrelevanttowaterservices

99

4.9

Forest–water-relatedcommunicationnetworksandtoolboxes

106

5.1

Thestrengthsandweaknessesoftwopaymentschemes

forwaterservicesinVeracruz,Mexico

123

Figures

1.1

Connectionbetweenecosystemservicesandhumanwell-being

5

2.1

Potentialrelationshipbetweentreelossandtherisk

oferosion,forestfireandbaselinewaterstress

9

2.2

Proportionoftotalforestareadesignatedprimarily

fortheconservationofsoilandwater,byregion

10

2.3

Forestmonitoringframeworkoutliningindicators

andsubindicatorsintheForestandLandscapeWater

EcosystemServicestool

15

2.4

Sentinel-2opticaldatashowingthedevelopmentofmining

alongarivernetworkinthenorthoftheRepublicoftheCongo

21

2.5

AnexampleofthemodelledRiparianZonesproduct

22

2.6

Processforidentifyingriparianbufferzones

usingaccumulatedwaterflow

23

2.7

TropicalMoistForestproduct(originalandafter

fragmentationanalysis)

23

2.8

ChangeinriparianforestcoveratasiteintheDemocratic

RepublicoftheCongo,May2019–March2020

25

v

2.9

Exampleoftheuseofspectralindicesinconjunction

withsegmentationtohighlightriparianforests

intheforest–savannahdomain

26

2.10

ExampleofhowtoolssuchasSEPALandCollectEarth

canbeusedtovalidateremotesensingobservations

27

2.11

Riparianzonesintheclosed-forestandsavannah

ecosystems,DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo

27

2.12

StudyareainsouthernDemocraticRepublic

oftheCongoatBandunu,showingintactforests

inthenortheastandgalleryforestsinsavannah

tothesouthoftheKasaiRiver

28

2.13

Combiningrivernetworkswithforestdata,savannah,

DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo

28

3.1

Naturalandhuman-originateddisturbances

canaffectwaterqualityandquantityatdifferent

spatialscalesduetochangesinforestcover

37

3.2

Schematicdiagramofthreenestedwatershedsinarivernetwork

48

3.3

Four-digithydrologicunitcodesidentifyingmajor

riverbasins,UnitedStatesofAmerica

49

3.4

Nestedstructureofwatershedboundaries,UnitedStatesofAmerica

49

3.5

Thestrengthandrelationshipofcorrelationsbetween

tropicalforestsandfreshwaterenvironments,broadly

categorizedintophysicalstructure,waterqualityandfood

59

3.6

LocationoftheLoessPlateauandaverageclimateconditions

65

3.7

PineplantationsintheLoessPlateauhavereducedsoil

moistureandthushaverelativelylowfunctionality

inprotectingsurfacesoilsandbiodiversity

65

4.1

Thecomponentsoftotaleconomicvalue

78

4.2

Typesofpaymentschemeforecosystemservices,

byroleofthestate

84

4.3

Thebasicconceptforfee-basedpaymentschemesforwaterservices

88

4.4

Schematizationofapartnershipmodel

89

4.5

Forestinfrastructureinvestmentmodel

90

4.6

Aschematicdepictionofcashandresourceflowsunder

forestresiliencebonds

90

4.7

Componentsofaforest–watercommunicationstrategy

102

4.8

Visualidentitycomponents

104

4.9

Componentsofacommunicationactionplan

104

5.1

Pre-tsunamivegetationcoverandpost-tsunamidamage

inCuddaloreDistrict,TamilNadu,India

112

Boxes

1.1

SummaryofrecommendationsfromForests

andWater–InternationalMomentum

1

1.2

Definingawatershed

3

2.1

FAO’sstate-of-the-arttoolforeveryone

12

2.2

AtlasofIndia’swetlands

13

2.3

TheBlueTargetingToolfortherapidassessmentofriparianhabitat

19

vi Aguidetoforest–watermanagement

2.4

Riparianzones:wheregreenandbluenetworksmeet

22

2.5

Potentialmethodsfordefiningriparianzones

23

2.6

Very-high-resolutionsatellitedataforproductvalidation

24

3.1

Globalchangesinfreshwaterriverdischarge

asoutputtomarinesystems

33

3.2

Soil:akeytoforest–waterrelationships

34

3.3

TheCityofSeattle’smunicipalwatershed

42

3.4

Deforestation-inducedcostsonMumbai’sdrinking-watersupplies

43

3.5

Urbanandperiurbanforestry

44

3.6

Risk-basedforestmanagement

45

3.7

Managementtechniquesforforestplantations

inareasatriskofconflictsoverwater

52

3.8

ComparingthePhetchaburiwatershed,Thailand,and

watershed-scaleplanningintheUnitedStatesofAmerica

55

3.9

TheSumberjayawatershed,Sumatra,Indonesia

56

3.10

ManagingforestsforcarboninAlaska,UnitedStatesofAmerica

58

3.11

Linksbetweenforestsandfreshwaterfishinthetropics

59

3.12

Biodiversityandfreshwater:synergisticecosystemservices

60

3.13

LessonsfromChina’smassiveforest–waterprogramme

63

4.1

Databasesandtoolsonthevaluationofecosystemservices

77

4.2

Totaleconomicvalue

78

4.3

HydroelectricityproductioninHubeiProvince,China

79

4.4

PublicwatersupplyinAlabama,UnitedStatesofAmerica

80

4.5

FlooddamagemitigationinManadiaNationalPark,Madagascar

82

4.6

VietNam’spaymentschemeforwatershedecosystemservices

87

4.7

SouthAfrica’sWorkingforWaterprogramme

88

4.8

ForestresiliencebondsintheUnitedStatesofAmerica

90

4.9

TheEuropeanInvestmentBank’sNaturalCapitalFinancingFacility

94

4.10

Marketing,communicationandbranding

100

4.11

Examplesofwater-relatedcommunicationmessagesandtools

105

5.1

Definingmangroves

108

5.2

Factorsinthemitigationeffectsofmangroves

110

5.3

Theprotectiveroleofcoastalvegetation

112

5.4

Whatisapeatlandforest?

113

5.5

Potentialforsustainablelivelihoodsintropicalpeatswampforests

116

5.6

Rewettingpeatlandsisessentialfortheirrestoration

117

5.7

Enablingholisticpeatlandrestorationintheborealzone

118

5.8

Whataretropicalmontanecloudforests?

120

5.9

Apaymentschemeforecosystemservicesprovided

bycloudforestsinMexico

123

5.10

Whataredrylandforests?

126

5.11

Agroforestrysystems–theimportanceoftreedensity

129

vii

Foreword

Forestedwatershedsprovide75percentofouraccessiblefreshwatersupplyandarethereforeintegraltoourwatersecurity.Landscapetransformationsduetogrowingpopulations,increasingurbansprawlandshiftsinlanduseandclimateultimatelyaffecthydrology,includingthequantity,qualityandtimingofwater.Treelossandwatersheddegradationincreasetheriskoferosion,forestfiresandwaterstress.Yetonly12percentoftheworld’sforestsaremanagedwithwaterasaprimaryobjective.

Managingforeststoprovidehealthywaterfunctionsdoesnotneednewmanagementtools.Rather,itrequirestheapplicationofexistingtoolsthroughalensthatconsidersecosystems,thelocationsofthoseecosystemsinthelandscape,othermanagementobjectives,andscale.

Numerousresourcesprovideinformationonforest–waterrelationships.Thepresentpublication,AGuidetoForest–WaterManagement,however,isthefirstcomprehensiveglobalpublicationonthemonitoring,managementandvaluationofforest–waterinteractions.Itwasdevelopedtostimulatediscussionsonstrategicforestmanagementandgovernanceforwaterandtoprovidegeneralguidanceonforest–watermonitoring,managementandvaluationatmultiplescales.

Becauseoftheimportanceofcontextinforest–waterrelationships,thispublicationdoesnotprovidecomprehensiveanddetailedguidanceforallsituations.Itdoes,however,examinecertainspecificforestecosystemtypesasexamplestoillustratehowsustainableforestmanagementcansupporthydrologicfunctionsandservicesatdifferentscales,fromlocaltolandscape.

AGuidetoForest–WaterManagementistheproductofcollaborationamongnumerousexpertsworldwide,supportedbyFAO,theEuropeanCommission,theUnitedStatesForestService,theInternationalUnionofForestResearchOrganizations’TaskForceforForestsandWater,andtheEuropeanCommissionJointResearchCentre.

Ensuringthefunctionalityoflandscapesandthedeliveryofecosystemservicesrequireseffectivemanagementandmonitoringthatfocusesonwater.Despiteuncertaintyaroundintegratedforest–watermanagement,itisimperativethatwaterreceivesmuchmoreattentioninforestmanagementastheworldfacestheconsequencesofclimatechangeandotherpressures.Wehopeandexpectthattheguidanceprovidedherewillencouragestakeholderstoprioritizewaterinforestmanagementandgovernance.

MetteWilkie

Director,ForestryDivision,FAO

ShirongLiu

VicePresident,IUFRO

viii Aguidetoforest–watermanagement

Acknowledgements

Thisreportwasmadepossiblebytheinvaluablecontributionsofnumerousforest–waterexperts.Wethankalltheindividuals,organizations,institutionsanduniversitieswhoparticipateddirectlyinthedraftingofthereport,aslistedinAnnex1.Wealsothankthefollowingreviewers:NicolaClerici,FidaaHaddad,LeraMiles,PeterMoore,LottaSamuelsonandAnnaTengberg.YukaMakino,AnssiPekkarinen,TiinaVahanenandMetteWilkieprovidedoverallsupervisionforthestudyaswellasimportantinsightsintoitscontent.ThankyoutoAlastairSarre,whoeditedthereport,andRobertoCenciarelli,whodidthelayout.

Thereport’sauthorsareasfollows:

Overallcoordination:ElaineSpringgay,SteveMcNulty,ChiaraPatriarcaandSaraCasallasRamirez

Chapter1–ElaineSpringgayandGiuliaAmato

Chapter2–SaraCasallasRamirez,RémiD’Annunzio,HughEva,ElaineSpringgayandSubhashAshutosh

Chapter3–SteveMcNulty,AshleySteel,ElaineSpringgay,BenCaldwell,KenichiShono,GeorgePess,SimonFunge-Smith,WilliamRichards,SilvioFerraz,DanNeary,JonathanLong,BrunoVerbist,JacksonLeonard,GeSun,TimothyBeechie,MichaelaLo,LillianMcGill,AimeeFullertonandSimoneBorelli

Chapter4–MarcoBoscolo,AlessandroLeonardi,MauroMasiero,GiuliaAmato,GiacomoLaghettoandColmO’Driscoll

Chapter5–SteveMcNulty,ElaineSpringgayandSaraCasallasRamirez(coordinatingauthors)

ZMangroves:KenichiShonoandRichardMacKenzie

ZPeatlands:MariaNuutinen,ElisabetRamsBeltran,KaiMillikenandDavidD’Amore

ZTropicalmontanecloudforests:TarinToledoAcevesandSvenGünter

ZDrylands:MariaGonzalez-Sanchis,AidaBarguesTobellaandAntoniodelCampo.

ix

Abbreviationsandacronyms

AUD

BTT

DEM

EUR

FAO

FL-WES

FRA

GIS

ha

HU

km

kWh

Australiandollar(s)

BlueTargetingTool

digitalelevationmodel

euro(s)

FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations

ForestandLandscapeWaterEcosystemServices

GlobalForestResourcesAssessment

geographicinformationsystem

hectare(s)

hydrologicunit[UnitedStatesofAmerica]

kilometre(s)

kilowatt-hour(s)

metre(s)

mmmillimetre(s)

MXN

NASA

PES

PWS

RFA

RMB

SEPAL

TMCF

TOC

USD

VDT

VND

VHR

WUE

WWF

Mexicanpeso(s)

NationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration

paymentsforecosystemservices

paymentsforwatershedservices

recordedforestarea[India]

Chineserenminbi

SystemforEarthObservationDataAccess,ProcessingandAnalysis

forLandMonitoring

tropicalmontanecloudforest

totalorganiccarbon

UnitedStatesdollar(s)

variable-densitythinning

Vietnamesedollar(s)

veryhighresolution

water-useefficiency

WorldWideFundforNature

x Aguidetoforest–watermanagement

Executivesummary

Manypeopleworldwidelackadequateaccesstocleanwatertomeetbasicneeds,andmanyimportanteconomicactivities,suchasenergyproductionandagriculture,alsorequirewater.Climatechangeislikelytoaggravatewaterstress.Astemperaturesrise,ecosystemsandthehuman,plantandanimalcommunitiesthatdependonthemwillneedmorewatertomaintaintheirhealthandtothrive.

Forestsandtreesareintegraltotheglobalwatercycleandthereforevitalforwatersecurity–theyregulatewaterquantity,qualityandtimingandprovideprotectivefunctionsagainst(forexample)soilandcoastalerosion,floodingandavalanches.Forestedwatershedsprovide75percentofourfreshwater,deliveringwatertooverhalftheworld’spopulation.

ThepurposeofAGuidetoForest–WaterManagementistoimprovetheglobalinformationbaseontheprotectivefunctionsofforestsforsoilandwater.Itreviewsemergingtechniquesandmethodologies,providesguidanceandrecommendationsonhowtomanageforestsfortheirwaterecosystemservices,andoffersinsightsintothebusinessandeconomiccasesformanagingforestsforwaterecosystemservices.

Intactnativeforestsandwell-managedplantedforestscanbearelativelycheapapproachtowatermanagementwhilegeneratingmultipleco-benefits.Watersecurityisasignificantglobalchallenge,butthispaperarguesthatwater-centredforestscanprovidenature-basedsolutionstoensuringglobalwaterresilience.

Monitoringandreporting

Standardizedglobalmethodsformonitoringforest–waterrelationshipsarelacking

–likelybecauseofthehighlycontextualnatureofforestsandwater,resourceandcapacitylimitations,regionalresearchbias,andtheprioritizationofotherforestecosystemservicessuchascarbonsequestrationandbiodiversityconservation.

Forest–waterinteractionsarecontext-specific,andmajorissuesexistindefiningriparianzonesanddetermininghowbesttomonitorandmanagethem.Inthispaperwebuildoncurrentknowledgetopresentanewapproachforthemonitoringofriparianforestswithavailabledataandsoftware.Thisisasignificantstepinaddressingforest–waterrelationships,biodiversityandotherecosystemservicesatthewatershed,landscapeandnationalscales.

Newtoolsandcitizensciencecanbeusedtoadvanceforest–watermonitoringandtherebyimprovepolicyandmanagementdecisions.Developmentsinremotesensinganduser-friendlyimage-processingtechnologiessuchastheSystemforEarthObservationDataAccess,ProcessingandAnalysisforLandMonitoring–SEPAL,theavailabilityofdecision-supporttoolssuchasForestandLandscapeWaterEcosystemServices–FL-WES,andtheincreaseduseofcitizenscience(e.g.theBlueTargetingTool)areenablingscientists,governmentagencies,practitionersandmanagerstoclosemajorgapsinforest–watermonitoring.

Thereisaneedtoaddressthecontextualnatureofforest–waterinteractionsthroughapproachesthatcombineglobalobservationsandnationalmonitoringdatabases.Mixedapproachesthatincluderemotesensingandfieldmethodologiesprovideawayforwardfortheaccurateassessmentofforest–waterinteractions.

Managingforestsforwater

Agrowinghumanpopulationandachangingclimatehaveputpressureonmanyecosystemservices,increasingtheneedtomanageforestsforwater.Thedemandforwaterisexpectedtocontinueincreasingthroughthetwenty-firstcentury.

xi

Sustainableforestmanagementforotherecosystemgoodsandservices,includingtimber,iscompatiblewithwater-qualityobjectives.Trade-offsmayberequired,buttheremayalsobesynergies;forexample,waterqualityiscloselylinkedtosoilconservation,apriorityofsustainableforestmanagementfortimberproduction.

Thequantityofwaterflowingfromaforestisdeterminedbytheamountofprecipitationminusevapotranspirationandwaterstoredinthesoil.Forestmanagerscannotcontrolprecipitationbuttheycaninfluenceevapotranspirationthroughmanagementpractices.Forestgrowthandmanagementaffectthedivisionofrainwaterintorunoffandinfiltration.Rapidforestgrowthcanreducewateravailability;conversely,theclearfellingoftreescancausedramaticincreases.Changesintreecovercanaffecttheamountofprecipitationstoredassnow(athigherlatitudesandaltitudes)and–byinfluencingsoilhealth–theamountofwaterstoredinsoils.Thesetypesofimpactcanaltertheseasonaltimingofflows.Monitoringisessentialforensuringthatmanagementpracticesdonotcausenegativeimpactsonwatertiming.

Increasingtheresilienceofforeststoenvironmentalstresswillhelpreducetheriskofacatastrophicdeclineinforestecosystemservices,includingthoserelatedtowater.Manysilviculturalpracticescanhelpmaintainorimprovewatervalues,withtheirapplicationvaryingdependingonfactorssuchasforesttype,otherforestmanagementobjectives,forestcondition,theresourcesavailableformanagement,timeofyear,anddesiredfuturecondition.Theimpactsofcommonlyusedmanagementpracticessuchastheconstructionandmaintenanceofroadinfrastructure,harvesting,andforestregenerationonforestwaterresourcesareexamined,alongwithkeymeanstominimizethese.

Ecosystemmanagementtoolsareavailabletoassistinmanagingforeststobenefitwaterquantity,qualityandtiming,andmanyexamplesexistofeffectiveforestmanagementforthetimelydeliveryofcleandrinkingwatertocities.Conversely,poorforestmanagementcanhavelong-termnegativeimpactsonforesthealthandwaterresources.

Valuingwaterfromforests

TheglobalprovisionofwaterservicesdecreasedbynearlyUSD10trillionperyearbetween1997and2011.

Thevaluationofecosystemservicesisthestartingpointformanagingforestsandallthebenefitstheyprovide.Severalmethodologieshavebeenputinplaceforrecognizingthevalueoftheecosystemservicesprovidedbyforests.Thevalueofanecosystemservicecanbederivedfrominformationprovidedbymarkettransactionsrelatingdirectlyorindirectlytothatecosystemservice,orfromhypotheticalmarketsthatmaybecreatedtoelicitvalues.

Paymentsforwatershedservices(PWS)areapromisingmechanismforbenefit-sharingandcooperationamongtheforestandwatersectors,especiallyintheabsenceoflegislativeframeworksorfunctioninglocalgovernance.Nevertheless,PWSshouldbeseenaspartofabroaderprocessoflocalparticipatorygovernanceratherthanasamarket-basedalternativetoineffectivegovernmentorcommunitymanagement.

NetworksandcollaborativeapproachesatthelocallevelareacommoncharacteristicofsuccessfulPWSschemes,inwhichregulators,privatecompanies,localauthoritiesandtechnicalandcivil-societyorganizationssharetheirexpertise–throughmatchedfunding–todeliverhigh-levelforestwatershedschemes.

ThetwomostcommonPWSschemesintheforest–waterdomainarewaterfees(utility-led)andmultiple-benefitpartnerships.Schemesthatapplyfeesforwateruseareusuallybasedonadefinednormativebackground.Nationalgovernmentsmayincentivizetheseschemesthroughappropriateregulations;examplesareprovided.

Thereisvalueinemployingacommunicationstrategyasameanstoincreasetheeffectivenessofforest–waterinitiatives.Properlydevelopedanddeployed,itwillassistingainingpoliticalandpublicsupportandfunding;strengthenthemoraleandinternalorganizationofinstitutionsandpartnershipsinvolvedintheinitiativebyproviding

xii Aguidetoforest–watermanagement

abroadervisionandmission;engagemorebeneficiariesandbuyersandtherebyhelpspreadtheword;andbuildtrustandrelationshipswithnewusers,includingethnicminorities,womenandyouth.

Basedonananalysisofcommunicationstrategiesforexistingforest–waterprojectsandnaturetourism,weproposeanine-stepprocessfordesigningacommunicationstrategyasameanstoenhancecommunityengagement,policycommitmentandwillingnesstoinvest.

Keyecosystemsforforest–watermanagement

Weexaminefourforesttypesofparticularimportanceinforest–watermanagementandprovideguidanceforoptimizingtheirroles.

Mangroves.Thereareapproximately13.8millionhectaresofmangroveforestsworldwide;theyprovidemanyessentialecosystemservicesandplayimportantrolesinclimate-changemitigationandadaptation.Anestimated30–35percentofmangroveshasbeenlostsincethe1980s,andaboutone-quarterofremainingmangrovesisconsideredtobemoderatelytoseverelydegraded.Forestwidthisthemostimportantfactordeterminingthemitigationpotentialofmangroveforestsagainsttsunamisandstormsurges.Integratingmangrovesindisasterriskreductionstrategiesandcoastalmanagementplanningcanhelpreducetheriskofcoastaldisasters.

Peatlandforests.Wetlandforestsgrowingonpeatsoilsplaycrucialrolesinwaterregulation(floodanddroughtmitigation)andthemaintenanceofwaterqualityatthecatchmentlevel.Unlikeotherforesttypes,thereisasynergisticrelationshipbetweenthewa