文档09-并列与从属

LectureIXCoordinationandSubordinationWarm-up1.Morningexerciseisgood________forbody________formind.A.both,andB.neither,norC.either,orD.not,nor2.________almostuniversalacknowledgementofthevitalimportanceofwomen’sliteracy,educationremainsadreamforfartoomanywomeninfartoomanycountriesoftheworld.A.DespiteB.SinceC.BecauseD.As3.________sixteen________toschool.A.Nottillhewas…didhegoB.Notuntilwashe…hewentC.Tillnotwashe….HewentD.Notuntilhewas…didhego4.Theclubisformembersonly.You________you’reamember.A.can’tgoinifB.cangoinonlyifC.can’tgoinunlessD.cangoinunless5.Literaturemay________andinform,entertain,expresspersonaljoyor________,reflectreligiousdevotion,glorifyanationorhero,or________aparticularpointofview–whetherit________political,social,oraesthetic.inspire;love;describe;isB.instruct;pain;advocate;beC.convince;hatred;reveal;wereD.alert;pleasure;explain;hasbeen Inthislectureourdiscussionextendstotheclauseorthesentence,ofwhichwordsandphrasesarecomponents.Wefocusontwoimportantwaysinwhichtwoormoreunitsarecombinedintolargerandmorecomplexunits.Thetwowaysarerespectivelyreferredtoascoordinationandsubordination.Bothinvolvethelinkingofunitsofthesamerank;butincoordinationtheunitsareconstituentsatthesamelevelwhereasinsubordinationtheyformahierarchy,thesubordinateunitbeingaconstituentofthemainclause. Coordinationistypicallyrealizedbycoordinatorswhichjoinunitsatthesamelevel,whereassubordination,realizedbysubordinators.Amajordifferencebetweencoordinationandsubordinationisthattheinformationinasubordinateclauseisoftenplacedinthebackgroundwithrespecttothesuperordiateclause.Thusthesyntacticinequalityofsubordinationtendstobringwithitasemanticinequalitywhichisrealizedbysyntactichierarchization,aswellasbyposition. Itissometimessaidthatanimportantdifferencebetweencoordinationandsubordinationisthatonlyintheformercantherelationbetweenthetwolinguisticunitsbereversedwithoutachangeofmeaning:A+conjunction+B=B+conjunction+A.Thisisnomorethanahalf-truth.Itistruethattheordercanbereversedincertaincasesofcoordination:SusanstudiesatauniversityandJohnworksatabank.(=JohnworksatabankandSusanstudiesatauniversity)Butthispotentialityisdependentonmanyfactors,onlyoneofwhichistherelationshipofmeaningbetweentwocoordinatedunits.Someofthesefactorsaresyntactic,othersareamatterofsemanticorpragmaticasymmetry.Forexample,thefollowingareobviouslynotsynonymous: Hediedandhewasburiedinthecemetery. Hewasburiedinthecemeteryandhedied.Insubordination,however,thesubordinateclausetendstoofferthebackgroundinformationinsupportofthemainclause–asemantichierarchythatresultsfromthesyntacticinequality: We’llhavearestifwecanfinishtheworkintime. Becausehehadworkedhard,hepassedtheexam.1.CoordinationCoordinationandsubordinationaretwodevicesforcombiningandrelatingideas.Theyarecommonlyusedtoconnectclausesorsentencesinordertoestablishvarioussemanticrelationships.Generallyspeaking,coordinationestablishesarelationshipbetweenideasofapproximatelyequalimportance,whilesubordinationestablishesakindofrelationshipwhichindicatesthatoneideaismoreimportantthantheother.Acoordinationconstructionisasequenceofsemanticallyrelatedgrammaticalunitswhicharesimilarinform,equalinrankofstructure,identicalinfunctionandareconnectedbycoordinators.两个或两个以上意义相关、层次相同、句法功能也相同、并由并列连词或其他并列手段连接起来的语法结构序列叫做并列结构。1)FormationOndifferentranksingrammaticalhierarchy:asequenceofcoordinatedWords:youandme,buyorsell,goodbutexpensivePhrases:ateacherandhisstudents,withstrengthbutwithoutconfidenceAmericanhistorianshavetriedtostrikeabalancebetweenindividualsandsocialgroups,andbetweenthedataofhistoryandtheirsignificance.Withplaysandfilmsitisgenerallyeasiertoassesshowweshouldfeelaboutwhatisnarrated,wheretheemphasisshouldfall,whatisimportantandwhatisnot,andhowweshouldjudgethecharactersinvolved.(H.PorterAbbott:TheCambridgeIntroductiontoNarrativep73)Clauses:Studentscansitintheclassroomortheycanstayatdormonline.Whentwoormoreindependentclausesarecoordinated,theyformacompoundsentence,forexample:Maryisanurse,herbrotherisadoctor,andherparentsarebothfamouswriters.(Thephonerang.ItwasGeorge.Hesaidhewassorry.Hepromisednevertoharassmeagain.)Hehadturnedoveranewleaf,hewasgoingregularlytoAA,hehadopenedabankaccountandalready,justthatmorning,hadmadeadepositthatheintendedtokeepthereuntilhehadbeensoberforthreeconsecutivemonths.(H.PorterAbbott:TheCambridgeIntroductiontoNarrativep64)2)Coordinatingdevices:coordinators&somepunctuationmarks(1)Whenasequencecontainsthreeormorecoordinateitems,theseriesisusuallywrittenwithcommasfollowingeachitemexceptthefinalonewhichisprecededbyacoordinator(usuallyand/or),forexample:Theprocessofrespirationconsistsoftwoindependentactions,inhalingandexhaling.Therearefivetypesofdischargefrommilitaryservice:honorable,general,undesirable,badconductanddishonorable.Tomaketheseriesmoveslowlyandseemlengthyanddrawn-out,wecanrepeatthecoordinatorallthroughtheseries,eliminatingthecommas:Raisingvegetablespresentsendlessopportunitiesforweedingandthinningandhoeingandwatering.Hetakestheteamoutandwatersandstallsandfeedsthem,andletsthecowsinfromthepasture.Thenhegoestothekitchen.(WilliamFaulkner:LightinAugust)If,ontheotherhand,wewanttomaketheseriesmorerapidsoastocreateasuggestionofurgencyandexcitement,wecanusecommasallthroughtheseries,eliminatingthecoordinator,forexample:Individualsarelesstroubledbyfeelingsofguiltwhentheyshareresponsibilityforkillingswithagroup–astreetgang,lynchmob,terroristorganization.Talkfrequentlyandhonestlytoeachotheraboutyourfrustrations,aboutintimacy,aboutanger,aboutdisappointment,aboutyourappreciationofeachother,aboutthemeaningoflife,abouteverything.Hedidnotlooklikeaprofessionalhoboinhisprofessionalrags,buttherewassomethingdefinitelyrootlessabouthim,asthoughnotownnorcitywashis,nostreet,nowalls,nosquareofearthhishome.(WilliamFaulkner:LightinAugust)Iamtoldbythegreatmasterofhumannature,thepoetwhowasalmostsuperhumanlywise,thatwhenthecourageofamanfailed,itwasthedetermination,thevigor,therelentlessfuryofawoman,thatstruckthekingdown,thatherhusbandmightsucceedtothethrone.Itisevenpossibletocombineinasinglesentenceaseriesthatrepeatscoordinatorswithonethateliminatesseriesismademorebalancedandsymmetrical.Thispatternofcoordinationisespeciallycommoninformalwrittenlanguage.Howdoyouapproachanewschoolyear?Doyouhavefeelingsofhappinessandexcitementorfeelingsofdread?Cross-talkcanbeheardanywherefromsmallvillagestagestothelargestBeijingtheatres,andtoradioandtelevision.Onlyafewcitiesareknownas“goodbaseballtowns”–CincinnatiandDetroit,ChicagoandBoston,LosAngelesandNewYork.BlackAmericanwritersfromFrederickDouglasandW.E.B.DuboistoMalcolmXandEldridgeCleaverhavefoundautobiographyanespeciallycongenialform.Theworlddoesn’twantahumanclone,yettheworldisgoingtohaveone,whetheritisoutlawedorsanctioned,hiddenorannounced,damagedorhealthy.Faulkner’slanguageof“realduration”disclosesChristmas’strueidentity,dividedyetwhole,reprobateyetresponsible,determinedyetfree.Expertperformers–whetherinmemoryorsurgery,balletorcomputerprogramming–arenearlyalwaysmade,notborn.(2007考研)Americanmovefromtowntocitytosuburb,fromajobinoneregiontoabetterjobelsewhere,fromthehomewhereweraiseourchildrentothehomewhereweplantoliveinretirement.5)CoordinatorsSemanticallyConsideredModernEnglishhasbasiccoordinators:and,or,but.Addedtotheseareyet,so,nor,itemsthatcanfunctionbothasconjunctionsandasconjunctiveadverbs.Inaddition,therearesomecorrelativepairssemanticallyrelatedtothebasiccoordinators,includingboth…and,notonly…butalso,not…nor,neither…nor,either…or,etc.Therearesomequasi-coordinators,includingaswellas,asmuchas,ratherthan,morethan,etc,rankingbetweenacoordinatorandasubordinatororacomplexpreposition.Finallyweshallmentiontheconjunctionfor,whichcanalsobeviewedeitherasacoordinatororasasubordinator.Heretreatedwithsubordinatorslikebecause.Semanticallyconsidered,Englishcoordinatorscanbedescribedunderthreeheadings:Coordinatorsdenotingaddition,representedbyand;Coordinatorsdenotingalternation,representedbyor;Coordinatorsdenotingcontrast,representedbybut.(1)And-groupcoordinators:and,both…and,notonly…butalso,not…nor,etc.Todenoteadditionorextensioninpositiveornegativeorientation.Asisreported,atradeagreementwassigned,andaculturalexchangewasarranged.Inaddition,andcandenoteothermeanings,suchasSemanticextension:HeisJackofalltradesandmasterofnone.Temporalsequence:Heopenedthedoorandwentin.Result:Heheardacryforhelp,and(therefore)herushedoutofthehouse.Condition:Thinkitoveragainandyou’llfindawayout.Contrast:MarylikesmusicandJimisfondofsports.Attitudinaldisjunction:Hehasasomewhatswelledhead,andIdon’tlikethis.Grammaticalconstructionslike“niceand…”,“goand…”,“tryand…”seemtobe,butactuallyarenot,coordinateconstructions.Thisroomisniceandwarm.(=nicelywarm)I’llgoandbringbackyourboots.(=goinordertobringback)Youmusttryandcometotheparty.(=trytocometo)NOT:Youtriedandcame…(2)Or-groupcoordinators:or,either…or,denotingalternationYouhavetodoitonewayortheother.Besides,itcanalsodenoteanegativecondition.Makeupyourmind,or(=ifnot)you’llmissthechance.Itshouldbenoticedthattheuseofeither…or,neither…nor,notonly…butalsoisdifferentfromthatofboth…and.Thefirstthreepairscanbeusedtoconnecttwoclauses,whileboth…andcannot.Notonlydidthegarageoverchargeme,buttheyhadn’tdoneaverygoodrepairjobeither.＊BothJanewantedtogotothesouth,andherhusbandwantedtogothere,too.Itshouldbenotedthatwhenneither/eitheroccursbeforeamainverb,whatfollowsnor/ormaybewithorwithouttheverb.Heneitherlikesfictionnor(likes)poetry.Hehaseithergonetothemoviesor(gone)tothetheatre.Sometimes,whatfollowsneither/eitherisonlythepredication,whilenor/orisfollowedbyawholeclause.Heneitherlikesfiction,nordoeshelikepoetry.Hehaseithergonetothemovies,orhehasgonetothetheatre.Butboth…and/notonly…but(also)cannotbeusedthisway.Both…and/notonly…but(also)mustbefollowedbyasimilarconstructions.Helikesbothfictionandpoetry.Henotonlylikesfictionbutalsolikespoetry.(3)But-groupcoordinators:but,not…but,while,whereas,yet,only,etc,denotingcontrastoraturninmeaning.Thiscoatisnotminebutyours.Sheisafunnygirl,yetyoucan’thelplikingher.(4)Notice=1\*GB3①Both…andonlycombinesconstituentsratherthanthewholesentence:Boththestudentandtheteacherarepleasedtohearthenews.=2\*GB3②Notonly…butalsocombinesbothconstituentsandthewholesentence,butinparallels:NotonlyIbutalsohewilltakepartinthemeeting.Notonlydidhehelpme,butalsohesentmehome.=3\*GB3③Either…orcombinesbothconstituentsandthewholesentence,whetherinparallelsornot:EitheryouorIamgoingtoshanghai.Hecaneitherstayathomeorleave.Hehaseithergonetothemoviesor(goneto)thetheatre.=4\*GB3④Neither…norcombinesbothconstituentsandthewholesentence,whetherinparallelsornot:Heneitherlikesfictionnor(likes)poetry.2.Subordination Subordinationmeansputtingagrammaticalunitinalowerrankorposition.Agrammaticalunitthatfunctionsasaconstituentofanotherunitofequalorlowerbankofstructureiscalledasubordinateconstruction,whichmightbeafiniteclause,anon-finiteclause,averblessclause,oraphrase.如果一个语法结构含有同一层次甚至高一层次的结构为其直接成分，这种现象叫做从属。从属于其他语法结构的结构叫做从属结构，从属结构可以是限定分句、非限定分句或无动词分句，也可以是词组，主要是介词词组。1)WaysofsubordinatingminorideasItisageneralpracticetoputthemainideainthemainclauseandtheminorideainadependentclause.Therearevariouswaysofsubordinatingminorideas,whichmaybeexpressedbyafiniteornon-finiteclauseorbyaverblessclause,eg:Astheywerecuriousabouttheirneighbors,theJohnsonswentandvisitedthematthefirstopportunity.Beingcuriousabouttheirnewneighbors,theJohnsonswentandvisitedthematthefirstopportunity.Forasecondtheystoodquitestill,wandsdirectedateachother’schests;then,recognizingeachother,theystowedtheirwandsbeneaththeircloaksandstartedwalkingbrisklyinthesamedirection.(J.K.Rowling:HarryPotterandtheDeathlyHallows)Ifthespeakerwantstofurtherminimizetheimportanceoftheminoridea,hecanevenputitinaphrase,chieflyaprepositionalphrase,eg:Withcuriosity,theJohnsonswentandvisitedtheirnewneighborsatthefirstopportunity.Partlybecauseoffinancialneed,andpartlybecauseofcareerchoicesforpersonalfulfillment,mothershavebeenleavingthetraditionalroleoffull-timehomemaker.(Becauseofeithereconomicnecessityorstrongdeterminationpersonalfulfillment,orboth,thephenomenonoflatchkeychildreniswidespreadinoursociety.)NCE-IIIP1022)SubordinatorsSubordinateclausesaregenerallyintroducedbysubordinators,which,intermsofwordformation,canbeclassifiedintosimplesubordinators,complexsubordinators,correlativesubordinatorsandmarginalsubordinators.1)simplesubordinators/one-wordsubordinators:after,although,as,because,before,directly,for,if,immediately,lest,like,once,since,that,though,till,unless,until,when(ever),where(ever),whereupon,while,whilst,etc.2)complexsubordinators/multi-wordsubordinators:assuming(that),butthat,considering(that),except(that),excepting(that),forall(that),given(that),granted(that),granting(that),inthat,inorderthat,insofarthat,intheeventthat,now(that),provided(that),savethat,seeing(that),suchthat,supposing(that),etc.3)correlativesubordinators:as…as,as…so,barely/hardly/scarcely…when,more/less…than,nosooner…than,so…as,so…that,such…as,such…that,the…the,whether…or,etc.4)marginalsubordinators:evenif,ifonly,justas,onlyif,everytime(that),theinstant(that),themoment(that),duetothefactthat,forthereasonthat,byreasonthat,forfear(that),inspiteofthefactthat,inthelightofthefactthat,onaccountofthefactthat,onthegroundthat,regardlessofthefactthat,inthesensethat,etc.3.(Finite)SubordinateClausesStructurally,subordinateclausesmaybefinite,non-finite,orverbless.Afinitesubordinateclauseisonewhosepredicatorisafiniteverbphrase.Syntactically,subordinateclausescanbesub-dividedintonominal,relative,andadverbialclauses.Followingisabriefdescriptionofthethreetypesofsubordinateclauses.1)Nominalclauses:nounclausesItcanperformmostfunctionsofanounphrase.Thiskindofclausesisusuallyintroducedby“that”orbyawh-wordsuchaswho,what,which,where,when,how,why,etc.Nominalclausescanfunctionassubject,object,subjectcomplement,appositive,andprepositionalcomplementation.eq\o\ac(○,1)sujectclause(wh-,that)Whoshouldberesponsiblefortheaccidentisnotclear.eq\o\ac(○,2)objectclause(wh-,that)CouldyoutellmehowIgettothepark?eq\o\ac(○,3)subjectcomplementclause(wh-,that)MyjobisthatIcollectallthelettersinthisarea.eq\o\ac(○,4)appositiveclause(that)Thenewsthatourteamwonistrue.RelativeclausesArelativeclauseisnormallyintroducedbyarelativeword,ie,byarelativepronoun,arelativedeterminer,orarelativeadverb.形容词性分句（关系分句)主要作名词修饰语，通常由who,which,that等关系代词和when,where,why等关系副词引导。Themanwhodidtherobberyhasbeencaught.IstillremembertheplacewhereIfirstmethim.AdverbialclausesAdverbialclausesarethosethatperformthefunctionofadverbialinacomplexsentence.Semantically,thiskindofclausecanbesubdividedintoadverbialclausesoftime,place,manner,cause,result,purpose,condition,andconcession.副词性分句（状语分句)按语义可分为时间状语分句、地点状语分句、方式状语分句、原因状语分句、结果状语分句、目的状语分句、条件状语分句、让步状语分句。eq\o\ac(○,1)time:as,after,before,once,since,till,until,when,whenever,while,aslongas,assoonas,nowthat…Onceyou’vefinished,gotobed.SinceIwasachildIhavelivedinEngland.Youcanborrowitaslongasyouarenotcarelesswithit.eq\o\ac(○,2)place:where,wherever,anywhere,everywhere…Youareabletogowhereveryoulike.Cornflourishesbestwherethegroundisrich.Hewouldlivewithhisgrandmotheranywhereshelived.eq\o\ac(○,3)reasonorcause:because,as,since,inthat,nowthat…Sincewe’venomoney,wecan’tbuyit.Wewereupearlythenextmorning,aswewantedtobeinOxfordbytheafternoon.eq\o\ac(○,4)manner:as,asif,asthough,theway,how…Doitthewayyouweretaught.Ididjustasyoutoldme.

eq\o\ac(○,5)comparison:as…as,than,accordingas,inproportionas…Youwillbepraisedorblamedaccordingasyourworkisgoodorbad.Somepeoplearehappyinproportionastheyarenoticedeq\o\ac(○,6)concession:though,although,evenif,if,while,when,whereas,nomatterwhether…or,as,though…Ifheislittle,heisstrong.Althoughthetrafficisnotbusy,helikestodriveatamoderatespeed.WhileIunderstandyourpointofview,Idonotshareit.Theywantahouse,whereaswewouldratherliveinaflat.OldasIman,Istillwanttolearn.Tryasyoumay,youwillfailatlast.Foolashelooks,heisgoodatdrawing.eq\o\ac(○,7)condition:if,unless,supposingthat,providingthat,providedthat,incasethat,onconditionthat,aslongas…Supposinghecan’tcome,whowilldothework.Shewillgoprovidedthatherfriendscangoalso.Incaseitrains,donotexpectme.eq\o\ac(○,8)result:that,so…that,such…that,withtheresultthat…Iwasinthebath,withtheresultthatIdidn’thearthetelephone.IntheMediterraneanseaweedissoabundantandsoeasilyharvestedthatitisneverofgreatworth.Thelackofunityinthehandlingofdiversethemesissomarkedastoseemawillfulmisleadingofthereader.eq\o\ac(○,9)degree:sothat,suchthat,asfaras,aslongas,tothedegreethat,insofaras….Solongasyouneedme,I’llstay.I’llhelpyouinsofarasIcaneq\o\ac(○,10)purpose:so,sothat,inorderthatI’llringhimupatoncesoheshouldn’twaitforme.4)Differentiationbetween“though”and“although” Both“though”and“although”denoteconcessionandareinterchangeableinmanycases.However,=1\*GB3①theyarenotinterchangeablewhenathough-clauseisintensifiedbyeven,forexample:Iforgotmyappointmenteventhoughmysecretaryremindedme.=2\*GB3②Theuseofalthoughisalsoimpossiblewhenathough-clauseexpresseshypotheticalmeaning,forexample:Thoughalltheworldwereagainstme,Ishouldstillholdtomyopinion.=3\*GB3③Andthoughcanintroduceanadverbialclauseofconcession,forexample:Cleverthoughhewas,hefailedtheexam.=4\*GB3④Itshouldbenotedthatalthoughcanonlyfunctionasasubordinator,whilethoughcanbeusedeitherasasubordinatoror,ininformalstyle,asanadverb,forexample:Heisadangerouselement;thereisnoreason,though,toshoothim.Thenewnoveldidreasonablythoughbynomeansspectacularlywell.(Millgate:11-2)=5\*GB3⑤Asanadverb,thoughusuallytakestheendposition,whereasalthoughneveroccursattheendofasentence,forexample:Hewillprobablyagree;youneverknow,though.4.Non-finiteclausesAnon-finiteclauseisaclausewithanon-finiteverbphraseaspredicator.Itincludesinfinitiveclause,-ingparticipleclause,and–edparticipleclause.1)InfinitiveclausesAninfinitiveclauseisa“subject+predicate”constructionwithaninfinitiveaspredicator.(1)Types=1\*GB3①InfinitiveclausewithoutexpressedsubjectThisisthetypeofinfinitiveclausewhoselogicalsubjectisonlyimpliedbutcanbeinferredfromthetext.Generallyspeaking,thelogicalsubjectofaninfinitiveclauseisjustthesubjectofthemainclause,eg:Ihopetobeabletocome.Inthecaseofattitudinalinfinitiveclause,thelogicalsubjectmaybeunderstoodtobethespeakerhimself,eg:Tobefrank,youneedagreatdealofcourage.=2\*GB3②InfinitiveclausewithexpressedsubjectTheexpressedsubjectofaninfinitiveclauseisgenerallyintroducedbyfor,eg:Thebestthingwouldbeforyoutotelleverybody.Occasionally,thesubjectcanalsobeintroducedbywithorratherthan,eg:Heknewthatwithhimtohelp,shecouldandwouldsucceed.Ratherthanyoudothejob,Iprefertofinishitmyself.Hereratherthanisa“quasi-coordinator”which,whenoccurringattheinitialposition,isnormallyfollowedbyabareinfinitive.Thiskindoflogicalsubjectmayalsoappearwithoutanyintroductoryword,thatis,theclausebecomeswhatistraditionallycalledan“absoluteconstruction”,eg:Weshallassembleat10:45,theprocessiontostartmovingatpreciselyeleven.=3\*GB3③Infinitiveclauseintroducedbywh-wordorsubordinatorInfinitiveclausescanalsobeintroducedbyawh-word,usuallybywhat,how,where,etc,eg:Idon’tknowwhattodo/howtodoit/wheretogo.Theycanalsogowithasubordinator,eg:Heopenedhislipsasiftosaysomething.(2)Syntacticfunctions=1\*GB3①Asanadverbialofpurpose,theinfinitiveisusuallywithto.Thelogicalsubjectneednotbeexpressedifitisidenticalwiththesubjectofthemainclause;ifnot,thelogicalsubjectmustbeexpressedandbeintroducedbyfor,eg:Shestooduptobeseenbetter.Hemovedasideforhertobeseenbetter.Ifwewanttostrengthenornegateaninfinitiveclause,wecanuseinordertoorsoasto,eg:Heopenedthewindowinorderto/soastogetsomefreshair.Heleftearlyinordernotto/soasnottomissthetrain.=2\*GB3②Todenoteresult,wenormallyusethesimpleformofto-infinitive,eg:In1935helefthomenevertoreturn.Hegottothestationonlytobetoldthatthetrainhadleft.Similarconstructionsincludeso…asto,such…asto,enoughto,andtoo…to,eg:Hisworkwassogoodastomakehimwell-knowninthecity.Hisindifferencewassuchastomakeusalldespair.Tryonwasextremelyangry,butcool-headedenoughtoavoidstormingintotheboss’soffice.Ihavedabbledinavarietyofdiseases,butnevergotonedownright–butonlyenoughtomakemefeelhorriblyunfitandverymiserablewithouttheconsolationofbeingabletoregardmyselfastheheroicvictimofsomeincurabledisorder.(W.N.P.Barbellion:TheJournalofaDisappointedMan)Thiscoffeeistoohot(forus)todrink.=3\*GB3③Asanadverbialofcause,infinitiveclausesgenerallycollocatewithadjectiveorverbsdenotingemotionorfortune,eg:Iamdelightedtoknowthatyouhavegotajob.Shewepttoseehiminsuchaterriblestate.2)–ingparticipleclausesAn–ingparticipleclauseisa“subject+predicate”constructionwithan–ingparticipleaspredicator.(1)Types-Ingparticipleclausesmaybewithanexpressedsubject,somewithasubordinator,andsomeneitherasubjectnorasubordinator.Thesearethethreetypes.

=1\*GB3①–ingparticipleclausewithoutexpressedsubjectorsubordinatorAn–ingparticipleclauseismostlywithoutanexpressedsubjectorasubordinator.Itslogicalsubjectcanbeinferredfromthecontextorthesituationinwhichtheclauseoccurs,eg:Hedeniedhavingbeenthere.IhaveafriendlivinginLondon.Beatingachildwilldomoreharmthangood.Writingisaslowprocess,requiringsignificantthought,timeandeffort.Attitudinal–ingparticipleclauseshavebecomesetexpressions,whoselogicalsubjectmaybeidentifiedasthespeakerhimselforpeopleingeneral,eg:Judgingfromwhatyousay,hehasdonehisbest.Generallyspeaking,thisbookisnotverydifficult.=2\*GB3②–ingparticipleclausewithsubordinatorAn–ingparticipleclausemaysometimesbeintroducedbyasubordinator.Thelogicalsubjectofthistypeisgenerallyidenticalwiththesubjectofthemainclause,eg:Whensleeping,Ineverhearathing.=3\*GB3③–ingparticipleclausewithexpressedsubjectAn–ingparticipleclausemaybewithanexpressedsubject.Thistypecommonlyfunctionsasobjectorprepositionalcomplementation,eg:Doyoumindmy/memakingasuggestion?Myparentsobjecttomy/megoingoutalone.Itmayalsobeusedassubjector“absoluteconstruction”,eg:Itisnouseyourpretendingtobedeaf.Thelastbushavinggone,wehadtowalkhome.(2)SyntacticfunctionsAsobject=1\*GB3①Both–ingparticipleandinfinitiveclausescanbeusedassubject,object,andsubject/objectcomplement.Inmanycases,thesetwoformsareinterchangeablewithoutdifferenceinmeaning,eg:Ilikegettingupearlyinthemorning.Iliketogetupearlyinthemorning.Therearecases,however,inwhichthechoicebetweenan–ingparticipleandaninfinitivegivesdifferentmeanings,eg:Thisisaboxforholdingchessmen.I’mlookingforaboxtoholdchessmen.Inoticedanoldmancrossingtheroad.Inoticedanoldmancrosstheroad.=2\*GB3②Asadverbials,-ingparticipleclausescanbeusedinvarioussenses.Theymayactasadverbialsoftime,cause,orcondition,eg:Climbingtothetopofthetower,wesawamagnificentview.Beingahard-workingyoungman,hewaspraisedbyhisteachers.Youwillmakeyourselfmoretiredkeepingonyourfeet(=ifyoukeeponyourfeet).Theymayalsoactasadverbialofconcession,result,andaccompanyingcircumstances,eg:Knowingallthis,hestillinsistedonmypayingforthe