联合国粮农组织（FAO）：粮食和农业水资源权属治理 Governance of tenure of water resources for food and agriculture

COAG/2022/15

May2022

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E

Documentscanbeconsultedat

NJ011

COMMITTEEONAGRICULTURE

Twenty-eighthSession

18-22July2022

Governanceoftenureofwaterresourcesforfoodandagriculture

ExecutiveSummary

Withmorethan733millionpeoplecurrentlylivinginareasofhighorcriticalwaterstress,anda

projected30percentincreaseinglobalwaterdemandby2050,thequestionofwaterresources

allocationhasneverbeenmoreimportant.Agricultureisbyfarthelargestuser,accountingfor72

percentofglobalwaterwithdrawals.Atthesametime,agriculturefacesincreasingcompetitionfromindustry,cities,andtheenvironment.Toovercomesuchchallenges,itistimetoaddressthewater

tenureandresponsiblewatergovernance.

Somewatertenurearrangementsderivefromformallaw,whileothersarecustomaryarrangements,

whichmayormaynotberecognizedbyformallaw.Customarytenurearrangementsrelatingtonaturalresourcescanassistinsecuringthetenureofawiderangeofindividualsandgroups,including

vulnerablepopulations,IndigenousPeoplesandlocalcommunities.Differenttypesofwatertenure

arrangementsconfervaryingdegreesofparticipationandinclusiveness,security,equity,sustainability,transparency,accountabilityandefficiencyinallocation.

WaterwasnotincludedintheVoluntaryGuidelinesontheResponsibleGovernanceofTenureofLand,ForestsandFisheriesintheContextofNationalFoodSecurity(VGGT),endorsedbytheCommitteeonWorldFoodSecurity(CFS)on11May2012.FAOanditspartnershavespearheadedinitiativeswhichshowthatawatertenureapproachoffersauniqueperspectivetounderstandthecomplexityofwater

rightsandallocationsystemsandidentifyactionableandcontext-specificavenuestoimprovethegovernanceofwatertenure,aswellasincreaseequityandsecurityforwaterusers.

Increasingwaterdemand,coupledwiththepredictedimpactsofclimatechange,posesasignificant

challengeforallcountriesinthecontextoffoodsecurity.Itwillbenecessarytostrikeabalance

betweenthesecuritynecessaryforinvestmentandasufficientflexibility,sothatwaterismanagedinatransparentandequitablemannertoaddresstheimpactsofclimatechangeandevolvingneeds.The

responsiblegovernanceofwatertenurecanbeanimportantvehicleforachievingthisbalance.

AGlobalDialogueonWaterTenure,sponsoredbyFAO,canleadtoanagreementonvoluntary

guidelinesdefiningprinciplesforresponsiblegovernanceofwatertenurethroughaninclusiveandconsultativeprocessthatincludesrelevantstakeholdersandcomplementedbytechnicalguidelineswhichcouldassistMembersondevelopmentandimplementationofpoliciesforaresponsible

governanceofwatertenureinthecontextofachievingfoodsecurity.

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SuggestedactionbytheCommittee

TheCommitteeisinvitedto:

.recognizetheimportanceofwatertenurefortheresponsiblegovernanceofnaturalresources;

.appreciateFAO’ssupporttocountriesthrougha“GlobalDialogueonWaterTenure”andlookforwardtoreceivingregularupdatesonprogress;and

.encourageMemberstoactivelyengageinthe“GlobalDialogueonWaterTenure”.

Queriesonthesubstantivecontentofthedocumentmaybeaddressedto:

MrLifengLi

Director

LandandWaterDivision(NSL)

Tel.+390657052242

COAG/2022/153

I.Thechallengeofaccesstowaterresourcesforfoodsecurityunder

conditionsofwaterscarcityandclimatechange

1.Withmorethan733millionpeoplecurrentlylivinginareasofhighorcriticalwaterstress

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andaprojected30percentincreaseinglobalwaterdemandby2050,

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waterallocationhasneverbeenmoreimportant.Agricultureisbyfarthelargestuser,accountingfor72percentofglobalwater

withdrawals,mostlyforirrigation

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.Yet,tofeedaprojectedglobalpopulationof10billionin2050,agriculturalproductionwillneedtoincreasebyalmost50percent,

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withmuchofthisgrowthbeingachievedthroughirrigation.

2.Agriculturalwaterusefacesincreasingcompetitionfromindustry,citiesandtheenvironment.And,adegradedenvironmentmakeshumanandanimaldiseasesmorelikelyasrecognizedbytheOneHealthapproach.

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Loomingoverthispictureisclimatechange,whichispredictedtohavesignificantimpactsonwateravailabilityaroundtheworld.

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3.Thechallengefacingcountriesisbothquantitativeandqualitative.Ontheonehand,itisa

matterofhowmuchwaterisavailableinrivers,lakes,streamsandaquifersandhowmuchshouldbe

allocatedtodifferentwaterusesectors(household,agriculture,industry,theenvironment,etc.)Ontheother,itisamatterofhowwaterwithdifferentqualityisallocatedfordifferentusesbyvariousgroups,andofhowdecisionsonallocationsandtenurearrangementsaremade.Inthefaceofthischallenge,itistimetoseriouslyaddresstheissueofwatertenureanditsresponsiblegovernance.

II.Whatiswatertenure?

4.Aworkingdefinitionofwatertenure,validatedatanFAOExpertRoundtableonWaterTenurein2019,is“therelationship,whetherlegallyorcustomarilydefined,betweenpeople,asindividualsorgroups,withrespecttowaterresources.”

i

5.Therearedifferencesbetweenwatertenureandlandtenure.Someconcernthedifferentnatureoftheresources:waterisflowing,fugitive,andisrenewedthroughthehydrologicalcycle,whilelandisfixedandimmobile.Somerelatetothewaysinwhichpeopleusethem:whilelandcanbeoccupied,mostusesofwaterresourcesincludeitsimpoundmentandabstractionfromanaturalsource.Others

involvethenatureofpeoples’relationshipswiththeresources:privateownershipofwaterresources,forexample,isnotpossibleinmostjurisdictions.

6.Nevertheless,therearemanysimilaritiesbetweenlandtenureandwatertenure.Whilemanytypesofwatertenurearrangementsderivefromformallaw,othersdonot.Aswithlandtenure,

responsiblewatertenurearrangementscanpreventconflict,poverty,foodinsecurityand

environmentaldegradation.Securewatertenurearrangementsarenecessarytoencourageinvestmentinwaterresources.Giventhevitalimportanceofencouragingwateruseefficiency,particularlyin

irrigation,thislastpointisparticularlyrelevant:whowillinvestinimprovedwatermanagement

withoutsecurewatertenure?Howtobalancetheenormousneedforinvestmentinwaterresources

1FAOandUNWater.2021.Progressonthelevelofwaterstress:GlobalstatusandaccelerationneedsforSDGindicator6.4.2,2021.Rome.

/10.4060/cb6241en.

2UnderaBusinessasUsualScenario,FAO.2021.TheStateoftheWorld’sLandandWaterResourcesforFood

andAgriculture-Systemsatbreakingpoints.Synthesisreport2021.Rome.

/documents/card/en/c/cb7654en

3FAOandUNWater.2021.Op.cit.

4FAO.2017.Thefutureoffoodandagriculture–Trendsandchallenges.Rome.

/3/i6583e/i6583e.pdf

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/one-health/en/

6Climatemodelspredictdecreasesinrenewablewaterresourcesinsomeregions(mid-latitudeanddry

subtropicalregions)andincreasesinothers(mainlyhighandhumidmid-latituderegions).Evenwhereincreasesareprojected,theremaybeshort-termshortagesduetothechangingstreamflowcausedbygreatervariabilityinrainfall.FAO.2021.Op.cit.

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infrastructure,includingforagriculture,watersupplyhydropowerandclimatechangeadaptation,

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whileensuringtheprotectionofexistingusesandusers?

7.Accesstowaterforhouseholdandagriculturaluseiskeyformillionsofsmallholderfarmersandtheirfamiliestosustaintheirlivelihoods,aswellasforinlandfishersandthosewhodependon

wetlandproducts.Seventy-sevenpercentofsmallholderfarmsinlow-andmiddle-incomecountries

arelocatedinwaterscarceregions,andlessthanathirdhaveaccesstoirrigation.

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Inmanycountries,accesstoanduseofwaterresourcesinruralareasisgovernedbycustomaryarrangements,whichmayormaynotberecognizedandprotectedbyformallaw,andbyarangeofinformalwatertenure

arrangements.Akeychallengetosustainandimprovewaterandfoodsecurityforruralpopulations,

particularlyinareasaffectedbywaterscarcity,istoincludesuchtypesofwatertenurearrangementsintheefforttoeffectivelymanagewaterresources.

8.Customarytenurearrangementsfornaturalresourcescanplayasignificantroleinsecuringthetenureofawiderangeofindividualsandgroups,includingIndigenousPeoplesandlocalcommunities(IPLCs),andparticularlythewomenwithinthosecommunities.

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Thecommunity-basedtenuresystemsemployedbyIPLCsworldwideregulateaccesstoanduseofnaturalresourcesonatleasthalfthe

world’slandmass,includingover60percentofthelandinSub-SaharanAfrica.

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Securecommunityrightstouseandgovernfreshwaterformultiplepurposesarenecessaryforthesurvival,health,foodsecurityandlivelihoodsofcommunities,butalsoforsupportingtheirabilitiestoeffectivelystewardwaterresourcesintheirterritorialresourcemanagementpractices,whilepreservingcommunities’

culturalidentitiesandknowledge.

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Customarylawscanalsobeamenabletoflexibleconflict

resolutionmechanismsaroundnaturalresources.

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TherecognitionofIPLCs’watertenureisalso

alignedwiththeprogressivearticulationofinternationallegaldefinitionsofterritorialandland-relatedrightsofthesecommunities,whichincluderightstotheirwaterresources.

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9.Beyondthesocio-legaldifferencebetweendifferenttypesoftenurearrangements,awatertenureassessmentcanshedlightontheeconomicimpactsofdifferenttypesoftenurearrangementsandonthebasicissuesofequityintermsofwhoholdswhichrightsoftheresource,andhowsecure

thoserightsare.Aswithlandtenure,governanceissuesareasimportantasthearrangementsthemselvesintermsofdecision-making,efficiency,transparency,andadministration.

10.Ofthedifferenttypesofwatertenurearrangementsidentifiedsofar,theonesderivingfromformallawinclude:

a.waterrightsthatderivefromlandtenureorpastwateruse;

b.permit-basedwaterrightstoabstract,impoundandusewaterthatderivefromwaterlawsoracts,aswellassimplifiedrulesfortheuseofwaterresourcesbysmall-scaleusers;

c.waterrightscreatedonthebasisofforeigninvestmentconcessions,oftenforhydropoweroragribusinesspurposes;

7Significantinvestmentsinstorage,throughtheconstructionofnewreservoirswillbenecessarytocapturerun-

offarisingfromalteredprecipitationpatterns.

8FAO.2021.Op.cit.

9Seee.g.Platteau(1996).TheEvolutionaryTheoryofLandRightsasAppliedtoSub-SaharanAfrica:ACriticalAssessment,DevelopmentandChange27(1):29-86.

10RightsandResourcesInitiative(RRI).2015.WhoOwnstheLandinAfrica?Formalrecognitionof

community-basedlandrightsinSub-SaharanAfrica.

/publication/who-owns-the-

land-in-africa

.

11TroellandKeene.2022(forthcoming).LegalRecognitionofCustomaryWaterTenureinSub-SaharanAfrica:UnpackingtheLand-WaterNexus.IWMIResearchPaper.

12See.g.,WorldBank(2003),LandPoliciesforGrowthandPovertyReduction.AWorldBankPolicyResearchReport.OxfordUniversityPress.Oxford

13See,e.g.,TheUnitedNationsDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples(UNDRIP),Arts.25,27-8;a.

ILOConventionNo.169onIndigenousandTribalRights,Art.15;AfricanCommissiononHumanandPeoples’

Rights(ACHPR).July2019.GuidelinesontheRighttoWaterinAfrica.Availableat:

/presspublic/publication?id=83

.Para.3.3;andtheUNGeneralAssemblyDeclarationontheRightsofPeasantsandOtherPeopleWorkinginRuralAreas,Arts.17,18,21.

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d.powersconferredonirrigation,industrialorregionaldevelopmentagenciestodevelopwaterinfrastructureandtosupplywaterinbulk;

e.rightsofcontractholdersforbulkwatersupply,includingindustry,waterutilities,individualfarmersorwateruserorganizations;

f.rightsofwateruserorganizations’membersagainsttheirrespectivewateruserorganization,whichdependalmostentirelyonthegoodgovernanceofthese

organizations;and

g.minimumenvironmentalflowrequirements.

11.Atthesametime,thedifferentrelationshipswithwaterresourcesthatdonotderivefromformallaw(i.e.watertenurearrangements)canbeidentifiedas:

a.arrangementsthatderivefromcustomaryorlocallaw;

b.relationshipsthatderivefromreligiousorspiritualpractices;

c.informalarrangementsthatmayarisebecauselawsarenotproperlyimplementedorrelatetoactivitiesthataretoleratedbytheauthorities,perhapsbecausetheycannotimplementthewaterlaw,whichalsoincludeillegaluseor“watertheft”;

d.“assumed”tenurearrangementsthatarisewhenitiserroneouslybelievedthatpublicwaterusersdonotneed,orhavealreadyobtained,permitsrequiredbylaw;and

e.“unrecognized”watertenure,whichariseswhenspecificrelationships,suchastheuseof

waterbylandfishers,arenotrecognizedbywaterlawsthatareprimarilyconcernedwiththeimpoundmentandabstractionofwater.

12.Newtypesofrelationships,whichareemerging,includethenotionoflegalpersonalityforrivers,whichisalsoatypeofwatertenurearrangement.

13.Differenttypesoftenurearrangementconfervaryingdegreesofsecurity.Intermsofformal

watertenurearrangements,thedegreeofsecuritythattheycreatedependsonarangeofissues,includingthedurationoftherightsconferredand,crucially,theextenttowhichgovernance

arrangementsareimplemented.

14.Atthesametime,allwaterrelationshipsrelatingtothesameresourceareinterrelated.The

constructionofahydropowerdamupstream,forexample,mayhavesignificantadverseimpactsonalldownstreamuses.Withoutsecurewatertenure,suchusesmayeasilybeoverlooked.

III.FAO’srecentworkonwatertenure

15.WhentheprocessofdevelopingtheVoluntaryGuidelinesontheResponsibleGovernanceofTenureofLand,ForestsandFisheriesinthecontextofNationalFoodSecurity(VGGT)began,the

originalintentionwastoincludewatertenure.OneofthefirstdefinitionsoflandtenureinanFAOpublicationexplicitlyreferredtowater,andincludedbyimplicationwatertenureaspartofland

tenure.

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Somepreliminaryworkwasundertakenaccordingly,

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eventhoughthetermwatertenurewasnotofcommonusage.WhentheCFSofficiallyendorsedtheVGGTon11May2012,water

tenurewasomitted.

16.FAOcontinuedtoexploretheusefulnessofthewatertenureconcept,whichwasdiscussedatanexpertmeetingonwatergovernanceandtenureheldatFAOheadquartersin2014.Threecase

studiesinIndia,SouthAfricaandSpainwerepublishedinthe2016studyExploringtheconceptofwatertenure.

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14“Landtenureistherelationship,whetherlegallyorcustomarilydefined,amongpeople,asindividualsorgroups,withrespecttoland.Forconvenience,“land”isusedheretoincludeothernaturalresourcessuchaswaterandtrees”(FAO.2002.LandtenurestudiesN°4,Rome.)

15ExpertgroupmeetingontheVoluntaryGuidelinesonGovernanceofTenureofLandandotherNatural

ResourcesheldatFAOheadquarters,inRome,on24November2008.

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/3/i5435e/i5435e.pdf

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17.In2019,theExpertRoundtableonWaterTenurewasheld,andtheprojectKnowing-Water

Better(KnoWat)waslaunched,whichlinkswateraccountingandwatertenureassessmentinRwanda,SenegalandSri-Lanka.TheKnoWatprojecthasalsoheldahighlysuccessfulonlineseminarseries,

theWaterTenureMondays,sharingwatertenureexperiencesfromaroundtheworld.Watertenure

alsohasbeenaddressedaspartoftheWaterScarcityInitiativeforeightcountriesintheNearEastandNorthAfrica:Algeria,Iran,Jordan,Lebanon,Egypt,Morocco,TunisiaandPalestine.Furthermore,

preliminarywatertenureassessmentshaverecentlybeencompletedinIndonesiaandVietNamaskeyelementsofFAO’sAsiaPacificWaterScarcityProgramme.FAOhascollaboratedwiththe

EnvironmentalLawInstitute(ELI),whichhasundertakenpioneeringworkoncommunity-basedwatertenure.

IV.Findingstodate

18.ThefindingsfromFAO’sworktodateshowthatawatertenureapproachoffersauniqueperspectivetounderstandthecomplexityofwaterrightsandallocationsystems.Theseextremelyinterestingfindingsinclude:

a.watertenurearrangementsarecomplex.Apartfromthenumberoftypesofwatertenurearrangements,thelegalframeworkisoftencomplextoo.Whilemostcountrieshave

waterlaws,manyotherlawsandregulationsonland,irrigation,energy,andthe

environmenthaveanimpactonwaterallocation.Theselinkagesmustbewell

understood,andlegislativecoherenceassuredtomakewaterallocationtransparentandaccountableandensuretenuresecurityoflegitimatewateruses;

b.withTarget6.5ofSustainableDevelopmentGoal6onCleanWaterandSanitation

callingfortheimplementationofintegratedwaterresourcesmanagement(IWRM)atalllevelsby2030,manycountrieshaverecentlyadoptednewbasicwaterlawsoractsorareintheprocessofdoingso.Implementationandenforcementremainaseriouschallenge,however,withmanywaterlawsnotoronlypartlyimplemented;

c.institutionalarrangementsforwatertenuregovernancefrequentlysufferfromoverlappingresponsibilitiesandmandates;

d.customaryorlocallawwatertenurearrangementsarenotalwaysrecognizedbyformalwaterlaw;

e.somewatertenurearrangements,particularlycustomaryones,aretiedtolandorotherresourcerights.Theselinkagesmustbewellunderstood;

f.abundleofrightsapproachmaybeusefulinunderstandingvariousrights,dutiesandpracticesthatcomprisewatertenurearrangements;

g.inmanycountries,thelimitedinstitutionalcapacitytoimplementpermit-basedwater

allocationsystemsresultsinafocusonlargerusers,posingaparticularchallengetotheequitablereachofthesesystems,leavingmanywaterusers,mostlyvulnerableones

includingsmallfarmers,withoutlegalprotectionoftheirwatertenurerights;

h.dataonavailableandactualuseofwaterresourcesisoftenscarce.Thisposesathreattowatertenuresystems,whichshouldbeunderpinnedbysoundwateraccountingto

providereliableinformationonwaterresources.Thecombinationofon-the-groundobservationwithnewremotesensingtechnologymayoffercost-effectivewaystoimprovedataavailabilityonwaterresources.

i.lessthan50countriesworldwidehavelawsorpoliciesthatspecificallymentionwomen’sparticipationinruralsanitationandwaterresourcesmanagement.

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Arecentassessmentof15countries’legalrecognitionofcommunity-basedwatertenurefoundthatlaws

17FAO.2021.Op.cit.

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regulatingcommunity-basedfreshwaterrightsaretypicallygender-blind,providingnospecificrecognitionorprotectionsforwomen’swatertenurerights.

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19.Acloserexaminationclearlyshowsthatwatertenureis,andcanonlybe,applicableatnationallevel.Justaslandtenurerulesinagivencountrycanhavenoimpactontherightsandwrongsofa

disputedboundary,watertenurearrangementsapplicableinacountrycanhavenobearingonthatcountry’sclaimsrelatingtowaterresourcesregardingotherriparianStates.

V.Thecaseforaglobaldialogueonwatertenuregovernance

20.Increasingwaterdemand,coupledwiththepredictedimpactsofclimatechange,posesa

significantchallengeforallFAOMembersintermsofwaterallocationingeneral,andthegovernanceofwatertenureparticularlyinthecontextoffoodsecurity.Itwillbenecessarytostrikeabalance

betweenthesecurityandcertaintynecessaryforinvestmentandasufficientdegreeofflexibilityso

thatwatercanbere-allocatedinatransparentandequitablemannertoreflectclimatechangeimpactsandevolvingneeds.Thiscanbeachievedthroughtheresponsiblegovernanceofwatertenure.

21.Strengtheningthegovernanceofwatertenureisacommonchallengefacedbyallcountries.Thosewithabundantwaterresourcesandreliablerainfallhavehithertohadlessneedtopayattentiontowaterallocationandthegovernanceofwatertenure.Thissituationisexpectedtochangeduetotheeffectsofclimatechange.Incountrieswithanaridclimate,thequestionofhowtoallocatescarce

waterresourcesrisksturningintoanexistentialissue.

22.Thechallengeisbothcomplexandcommontoall:howtocreateme