新编语言学教程

ACourseonLinguistics

forStudentsofEnglish

Linguistics:ANewCoursebook

《新编语言学教程》

TheGoalsforthisCourseTogetascientificviewonlanguage;Tounderstandsomebasictheoriesonlinguistics;Tounderstandtheapplicationsofthelinguistictheories,especiallyinthefieldsoflanguageteaching&learning(SLAorTEFL),cross-culturalcommunication……;Toprepareforthefutureresearchwork.语言学学习应注意的方面：

1)术语问题2）语言学理论问题

3）语言学研究方法问题

4）语言学研究名家5）学习习惯问题Chapter1Introduction

ILinguistics1.

Definitionoflinguistics2.Linguisticsandtraditionalgrammar3.Useofstudyinglinguistics4.Scopeoflinguistics

IILanguage1.WhyStudyLanguage?2.Definitionsoflanguage3.Originoflanguage4.DesignFeaturesofLanguage5.FunctionsoflanguageⅢSomemajorconceptsinlinguistics

1.DefinitionofLinguistics

Linguisticsisthescientificorsystematicstudyoflanguage(p.1).语言学常被定义为一门关于语言的科学或对语言的科学研究。Apersonwhostudieslinguisticsisknownasalinguist.1)Fourprinciplesoflinguisticstudies(P1)Exhaustiveness/adequacy（穷尽性）：useadequatesamplesinthestudy.Thelinguistsshouldgatherallthematerialsrelevanttohisinvestigationandgivethemanadequateexplanation.Ifheleavesmanyfactsundiscussedorunexplained,hisstudywillnotberegardedasexhaustiveandhisconclusionswillnotbeacceptedasscientific.Consistency（一致性）：keeptherulesconsistentinthestudyofalanguage.Thereshouldbenocontradictionbetweendifferentpartsofthetotalstatement.Economy（简洁性、经济性）：ruleouttheredundancy,makekeypartstandoutinlanguagedescriptionorlanguageanalysis.Otherthingsbeingequal,ashortstatementoranalysisispreferredtoalongerormorecomplexone.Objectivity（客观性）：describealanguageasitis.Alinguistshouldbeasobjectiveaspossibleinhisdescriptionandanalysisofdataandcannotallowprejudicetoinfluencehisgeneralizations.2)Twopurposes(p.2)a.Linguisticsstudiesthenatureoflanguageinordertoestablishatheoryoflanguageanddescribeslanguagesinthelightofthetheoryestablished.b.Linguisticsexaminesalltheformsoflanguageingeneralandseeksascientificunderstandingofthewaysinwhichitisorganizedtofulfilltheneedsitservesandthefunctionsitperformsinhumanlife.2.Thedifferencebetweenlinguisticsandtraditionalgrammar(P2-3)Traditionalgrammar,asapre-20thcenturylanguagedescriptionandpre-linguisticproductofresearch,wasbaseduponearliergrammarsofLatinorGreek(e.g.EnglishhadsixcasesbecauseLatinhadsixcases),andlaidemphasis

oncorrectness,literary

excellence,theuseofLatin

models,andthepriority

of

written

language.

2.Linguisticsvs.TraditionalGrammarA.Linguisticsisdescriptive,notprescriptive.Alinguistisinterestedinwhatissaid,notwhathethinksoughttobesaid.Hedescribeslanguageinallitsaspects,butdoesnotprescriberulesofcorrectness.Hedoesnotbelievethatthereissomeabsolutestandardofcorrectnessconcerninglanguageuse.

Instead,hewouldprefertobeanobserverandrecorderoffacts,butnotajudge.

Traditionalgrammarwasverystronglynormativeincharacter.Thegrammariansawitashistasktoformulatethestandardsofcorrectnessandtoimposethese,ifnecessary,uponthespeakersofthelanguage.B.Linguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.c)LinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinthatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.Traditionalgrammar----prescriptive,written,Latin-basedframework

规定性的、书面语的，放进一个拉丁语为基础的框架内Modernlinguistics-----descriptive,spoken,notnecessarilyLatin-basedframework

描述性的、口头语的，不强行放进一个拉丁语为基础的框架内WeakpointsofTraditionalGrammar1.规定语言学家在判断语言的正确与否时常从逻辑学的角度加以观察，但是却忽视了语言在受一般逻辑规律支配的同时，又有自身的规律，使得语言规律与逻辑规律既有相似性又有相异性。以双重否定为例。从逻辑学的角度来看，否定之否定就是肯定。正因如此，规定语法学家认为：Ididn’tdonothing.正确的解释为:ItisnottruethatIdidnothing.或Ididsomething.但是，英语使用的现实却是这两种相互矛盾的语义都存在。语义的区别是通过语言的语音规律加以实现的。在前者，“didn’t”重读，而后者“didn’t不重读。再看下列例句：Allthechildrendidn’tsleep(Allthechildrenfailedtosleep.)Allthechildrendidn’tsleep.(Notallthechildrenfailedtosleep.)这两个话语在语义上的差异也是违反了传统逻辑规律。语音规律的介入很好地解决了这一问题：Allthechildrendidn’tˋsleep.(重音落在sleep上，且使用降调)

ˇAllthechildrendidn’tsleep.（重音落在all上，且使用降升调）事实上，这种突破一般逻辑规律的现象在其它语言中也时常可见。以汉语为例：今天街上好热闹。今天街上好不热闹。再看汉语中的“差点儿”和“差点儿没”两个表达法：他差点儿摔倒了。他差点儿没摔倒。我差点儿通过了考试。

我差点儿没通过考试。如果用“差点儿”和“差点儿没”去修饰说话人希望实现的事情，那么“差点儿”含有惋惜希望的事情未能实现，而“差点儿没”是指庆幸希望的事情发生了。2.Therearenoabsolutestandardsofcorrectnessinlanguageuses.秋浦歌白发三千丈，缘愁似个长。不知明镜里，何处得秋霜。单看“白发三千丈”一句，真叫人无法理解：白发怎么能有“三千丈”呢？愁生白发，人所共晓，而长达三千丈，该有多少深重的愁思。十个字的千钧重量落在一个“愁”字上。以此写愁，匪夷所思。奇想出奇句，不能不使人惊叹诗人的气魄和笔力。3.Useofstudyinglinguistics(pp.3-4)1)Tohaveanoverviewofhumanlanguage;2)Tounderstandthathumanlanguageshaveimportantfeaturesincommonthoughtheydiffergreatlyinmanydetails;3)Togoalongthepathleadingtothefinalprofessioneitherasateacherofforeignlanguagesorasaresearcheroflinguisticsortranslation(p.4)4.Scopeoflinguistics(pp.4-8)1)microlinguisticsVSmacrolinguisticsMicrolinguistics:Phonetics,Phonology,Morphology,Syntax,Semantics,Pragmatics.

Thesebranchesareattheverycenteroflinguisticscope.

Macrolinguistics:Sociolinguistics,Psycholinguistics,Neurolinguistics,Stylistics,Discourseanalysis,Computationallinguistics,CognitivelinguisticsThesebranchesarerelatedtosomethingthatisnotatthecenteroflinguisticscope.2)LinguisticsclassifiedfromdifferentperspectivesfunctionallinguisticsVSformallinguisticstheformerstressesthefunctionoflanguageandthelatterstressestheformoflanguagetheoreticallinguisticsVSappliedlinguisticstheformerstudiesthe“pure”theoryinlanguageandthelatterstudieshowtoapplythetheoryTheoreticallinguisticsPhonetics语音学Phonology音系学Morphology形态学Syntax句法学Semantics语义学UseoflinguisticsAppliedlinguistics应用语言学Sociolinguistics社会语言学Psycholinguistics心理语言学

……corpuslinguistics—linguisticdescriptionbasedontheextensiveaccumulationofnaturallyoccurringlanguagedataanditsanalysisbycomputers语料库语言学forensiclinguistics—theexaminationoflinguisticevidenceforlegalpurposes法律语言学mathematicallinguistics—thestudyofthemathematicalpropertiesoflanguage数学语言学anthropologicallinguistics—thestudyoflanguageincross-culturalsettings人类语言学3)Recentdevelopmentsoflinguistics:Corpuslinguistics,DiscourseAnalysis,Cognitivelinguistics,Computationallinguistics,Mathematicallinguistics

IILanguage

1.WhyStudyLanguage?findingoutmoreabouthowthebrainworks;Howchildrenlearnlanguage;Whattherelationshipbetweenmeaningandperceptionis;Whatroleoflanguageisindifferentcultures;…FundamentalviewsaboutlanguageChildrenlearntheirnativelanguageswiftly,efficientlyandwithoutinstruction.Languageoperatesbyrules.Alllanguageshavethreemajorcomponents:asoundsystem,asystemoflexico-grammarandasystemofsemantics.Everyonespeaksadialect.Languageslowlychanges.Speakersofalllanguagesemployarangeofstylesandasetofjargons.Languagesareintimatelyrelatedtothesocietiesandindividualswhousethem.……2.WhatisLanguage?Language“isnottobeconfusedwithhumanspeechwhichisonlyadefinitepart,thoughcertainlyanessentialone.Itisbothasocialproductofthefacultyofspeechandacollectionofnecessaryconventionsthathavebeenadoptedbyasocialbodytopermitindividualstoexercisethatfaculty”.--FerdinanddeSaussure(索绪尔：1857-1913)“Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.”--EdwardSapir(萨丕尔，1884-1939):“FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeaset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.”--NoamChomsky(诺姆·乔姆斯基，1928-)

语言是人类特有的一种符号系统。当作用于人与人的关系的时候，它是表达相互反应的中介；当作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候，它是认知事物的工具；当作用于文化的时候，它是文化信息的载体。（许国璋《中国大百科全书•语言文字》）Agenerallyacceptabledefinition:

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocal

symbolsusedforhumancommunication.

语言是一个具有任意性用于人类交流的语音符号系统LanguageisasystemSystemic----rule-governed,elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules;can’tbecombinedatwill.e.g.*bkli,*Iappleeat.语言是一个系统，语言的要素是根据规则组合在一起的。LanguageisarbitraryArbitrary----nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes,e.g.“pen”byanyothernameisthethingweusetowritewith.语言符号和符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系.“pen”“othername”Bysayingthat“languageisarbitrary”,wemeanthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsand

.考研链接中山大学2003年考题soundLanguageisprimarilyvocalVocal----theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages;writingsystemcamemuchlaterthanspokenform.语言是有声的，因为所有语言的首要媒介都是声音.

Writingisderivativeofspeech.LanguageissymbolicinnatureSymbolic----wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actionsideasbyconvention.象征性——词语只是符号，它们通过习惯与物体、动作和概念联系起来。“桌子”,“Desk”convention“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet”ConventionLanguageishuman-specificHuman-specific----differentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,e.g.birdsongs,beedance,animalcries.语言是人类独有的，有别于其他生物的交际系统鸟有鸟语，人有人言。BertrandRussellonceobserved:“Nomatterhoweloquentlyadogmaybark,hecannottellyouthathisparentswerepoorbuthonest.3.Originoflanguage(pp.9-10)Becausenoonecansayhowandwhenlanguageoriginated,therearesomespeculationsaboutit.1)Plato:Therewasa“perfect”language;2)Socrates:Imitationofnaturalsoundswasthebasisfortheoriginoflanguage;3)Man’sinstinctiveresponsetocertainexternalstimuliwasthebasisfortheoriginoflanguage;4)Ding-DongTheory:Humanspeechdevelopedfromprimitivemangivingvocalexpressiontotheobjectsheencountered;5)Sing-SongTheory:Languagedevelopedfromprimitiveritualsongsofpraise;6)“Poor-Pooh(ExclamationorInterjectional)Theory”stressesthespeaker’semotion;(感叹说:认为语言起源于感叹词)7)“Yo-He-HoTheory”:criesutteredduringstrainofwork;劳动号子说

8)“Ta-TaTheory”:Languagecamefromthecombinationofcertaingesturesandtonguemovement;9)“Bow-WowTheory”:imitationofanimalcriesandothersoundsheardinnature.10).

“The‘Divine’origin”:LanguageisagiftofGodtomankind.Conclusion:Languageoriginates,growsanddevelopsinsociety.

4.DesignFeaturesofLanguage

语言本质特征Languagedistinguisheshumanbeingsfromanimalsinthatitisfarmoresophisticatedthananyanimalcommunicationsystem.Thedesign/definingfeaturesofhumanlanguageArbitrariness任意性Duality二重性/两重性/二元性Productivity/Creativity创造性,能产性Interchangeability互换性Displacement移位性/跨时空性Specialization专门化CulturalTransmission文化传递性(1)Arbitrariness----Nological(motivatedorintrinsic)connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings.语言符号的形式和意义间没有自然的联系

eg:

Dogsbarks“汪汪”

inChinesebut“bowwow”inEnglishException:Onomatopoeicwords

象/拟声词(whichimitatenaturalsounds)aresomewhatmotivated(English:rumble,crackle,bang,….Chinese:putong,shasha,dingdang…)Butthevastmajorityofthewordsinalllanguagesarenon-onomatopoeic:Theconnectionbetweentheirformandtheirmeaningisarbitraryinthat,giventheform,itisimpossibletopredictthemeaningand,giventhemeaning,itisimpossibletopredicttheform.Somecompoundwordsarenotentirelyarbitrary,e.g.type-writer,shoe-maker,air-conditioner,photocopy…Arbitrarinessatthesyntacticlevel:languageisnotarbitraryatthesyntacticlevel.Hecameinandsatdown.(thesequenceofactions)Hesatdownandcamein.(oppositethesequence,maybehegotintowheelchairandpropelledhimselfintoroom)Hesatdownafterhecamein.(use“after”toreversetheorderoftheclause)Conclusion:Thelinkbetweenalinguisticsignanditsmeaningisamatterofconvention.2013年专八链接39._____isalanguagephenomenoninwhichwordssoundlikewhattheyreferto.OnomatopoeiaCollocationC.DenotationD.Assimilation(2)Duality(doublearticulation)

Lowerlevel----sounds(meaningless)Higherlevel----meaning(largerunitsofmeaning)Eg:/k/,/a:/,/p/=carp/ka:p/,or/pa:k/Acommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreflexiblethanonewithoutit,forafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent.有两个结构层次，上层结构的单位是由底层结构的元素组成的。二重性使得人类语言具有巨大的能动性，使为数不多的几个元素就可以创造出大量不同的单位。(3)Productivity/creativity

----Peculiartohumanlanguages，usersoflanguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore,e.g.wecanunderstandsentencelike“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthehotelbed”,thoughitdoesnotdescribeacommonhappeningintheworld.

Furthermore,humancantheoreticallycreateainfinitelengthsentences.eg:

Heboughtabookwhichwaswrittenbyateacherwhotaughtinaschoolwhichwasknownforitsgraduateswho...语言的能产性使得说话人仅用基础的语言单位就可创造出无限多的句子，其中大部分说话人可能没有听过也没有说过。这一特征也使人类语言不同于动物——它们只能传递一些有限的信息。(4)Interchangeability互换性Interchangeabilityorreciprocityreferstothefactthatmancanbothproduceandreceivemessages,andhisrolesasaspeakerandahearercanbeexchangedatease.(5)Displacement

----Languagecanbeusedtorefertothings,whicharenotpresent:realorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Thus,wecanrefertoConfucius,ortheNorthPole,eventhoughthefirsthasbeendeadforover2550yearsandthesecondissituatedfarawayfromus.

移位性是指语言使用者可以用语言表达不在交际现场（时间和空间）的物体、事件及概念。例如，我们可以谈论孔夫子或者北极，尽管孔夫子是四千多年前的人物而北极也遥不可及。Animalcommunicationisnormallyunder“immediatestimuluscontrol”(直接刺激控制).Forinstance,awarningcryofabirdinstantlyannouncesdanger.Humanlanguageisstimulus-free.Whatwearetalkingaboutneednotbetriggeredbyanyexternalstimulusintheworldoranyinternalstate.Displacementbenefitshumanbeingsbygivingusthepowertohandlegeneralizationsandabstractions.Oncewecantalkaboutphysicallydistantthing,weacquiretheabilitytounderstandconceptswhichdenote“non-things”,suchastruthandbeauty.(6)Specialization—Itreferstothefactthatmandoesnothaveatotalphysicalinvolvementintheactofcommunication.

Weuselanguageinadetachedmanner.Wecantalkaboutanexcitingexperiencewhileengagedinactivitiescompletelydetachedfromthesubjectunderdiscussion.Eg:Amancandiscussafootballgamewithhisfriendwhiledrivingacar.(7)CulturalTransmission—Itmeansthatlanguageisnotgeneticallypasseddownfromonegenerationtoanother.Rather,languagehastobelearned.AChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Thatis,itispassonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.Thestoryofawolfchild,apigchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage.200539.WhichofthefollowingisNOTadistinctivefeatureofhumanlanguage?A.Arbitrariness.B.Productivity.C.Culturaltransmission.D.Finiteness.专八链接200838.WhichofthefollowingisNOTadesignfeatureofhumanlanguage?

A.Arbitrariness.B.Displacement.

C.Duality.D.Diachronicity.

5.FunctionsoflanguageLinguiststalkaboutthefunctionsoflanguageinanabstractsense,thatis,notintermsofusinglanguagetochat,tothink,tobuyandsell,toreadandwrite,togreet,praiseandcondemnpeople,etc.Theysummarizethesepracticalfunctionsandattemptsomebroadclassificationsofthebasicfunctionsoflanguage.Functionsoflanguage(P14)Phaticfunction/communion:寒暄功能/交感，交际功能Directivefunction:指令功能Informativefunction:信息功能Interrogativefunction:疑问功能Expressivefunction:表达功能Evocativefunction：情感功能Performativefunction:施为功能⑴Phaticfunction/communion:establishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontact.Itreferstothesocialinteractionoflanguage.(指语言的社会交互性)

eg:1)“Howdoyoudo?”2)“吃饭了吗?”

3)

Mrs.Psneezesviolently.Mrs.Q:Blessyou.Mrs.P:Thankyou.Broadlyspeaking,thisfunctionreferstoexpressionsthathelpdefineandmaintaininterpersonalrelations,suchasslang,jokes,jargons,ritualisticexchanges,switchestosocialandregionaldialects.Weallusesuchsmall,seeminglymeaninglessexpressionstomaintainacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutinvolvinganyfactualcontent.Differentcultureshavedifferenttopicsofphaticcommunion.AccordingtoDavidCrystal,theweatherisnotauniversalconversationfillerastheEnglishmightliketothink.Rundiwomen(inBurundi布隆迪,CentralAfrica),upontakingleave,routinelyandpolitelysay

“Imustgohomenow,ormyhusbandwillbeatme.”

Wehavetolearnalargerepertoireofsuchusagesifwearetointeractcomfortablywithdifferentpeople.

⑵Directivefunction:togetthehearertodosth.Mostimperativesentencesareofthisfunctione.g.Closethewindow,please.Youshouldleaverightnow.IfIwereyou,Iwouldtakeit.⑶Informativefunction:giveinformationaboutfacts.e.g.Waterboilsat100degreescentigrade.⑷Interrogativefunction:toaskinformationfromothers.e.g.Howoldareyou?(5)Expressivefunction:Languageisusedtorevealsomethingaboutthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.e.g.English:“MyGod”,“Damnit”,“Wow”,“Ugh”,“Ow”,etc.Chinese:“天哪”,“我的妈呀”,“啊”,etc.otherexample,thechantingofacrowdatafootballmatch;theshoutingofnamesorslogansatpublicmeetings;⑹Evocativefunction：tocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearers.Languageisusedtocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearer,e.g.toamuse,toanger,toworryortopleasethehearer.(jokesaredesignedtoamusetheaudience;advertisingisdevisedtourgecustomerstobuythementionedgoods;publicspeechaimstoinfluencepeopleinacertainline.)⑺Performativefunction:languageisusedtodothings,toperformactions.ThisconceptoriginatesfromthephilosophicalstudyoflanguagerepresentedbyAustinandSearle,whosetheorynowformstheback-boneofpragmatics.Forexample:Inowdeclarethemeetingopen.

Theperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons,asinmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcriminals,theblessingofchildren,thenamingofashipatalaunchingceremony,andthecursingofenemies.Thekindoflanguageemployedinperformativeverbalactsisusuallyquiteformalandevenritualized.Forexample,inChinesewhensomeonebreaksabowloraplatethehostorthepeoplepresentarelikelytosay岁岁平安

asameansofcontrollingtheinvisibleforceswhichthebelieversfeelmightaffecttheirlivesadversely.

Theperformativefunctioncanextendtothecontrolofrealityasonsomemagicalorreligiousoccasions.补充：Recreationalfunction娱乐功能

Therecreationalfunctionofalanguageisoftenoverlookedbecauseitseemssorestrictiveinpurposeandsupposedlysolimitedinusefulness.However,noonewilldenytheuseoflanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit,suchasababy'sbabblingorachanter'schanting.IntheLatinandIslamicworldsaswellasinsomeareasofChina,thereiswidespreaduseofverbaldueling(对歌),inwhichonesingerbeginsasongofusuallyfewlinesandchallengeshisopponenttocontinuethecontentorprovidearejoinderinasimilarrhythmandrhymescheme.Suchverbalduelsmaylastforafewhoursandisperformedforthesheerjoyofplayingonlanguage.Totakeoneexample,thewell-knownmovie《刘三姐》featuresasceneof“对歌”

(songdueling)mostlyforthesheerjoyofplayingonlanguage.Ifyouobserveachildren’splay,youwillfindthepowerofsound.Sometimesevennonsensicallyricsperformarecreationalfunctioninthegame:therepetitiverhythmshelptocontrolthegame,andthechildrenplainlytakegreatdelightinit.Adultsalsohavetheirwaytoappreciatelanguageforitsownsake.Forinstance,poetrywritinggivesthemthepleasureofusinglanguageforitssheerbeauty.VerycloseheretoJakobson'spoeticfunction.201040．Languageistoolofcommunication,thesymbol“highwayclosed”servesA.PhaticfunctionB.informativefunctionC.aperformativefunctionD.apersuasivefunction专八链接201340.Thesentence"Closeyourbookandlistentomecarefully!"performsa(n)____function.A.interrogativeB.informativeC.performativeD.directive1)Descriptivevsprescriptive

描写与规定Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive描写和分析人们对语言的实际运用Ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesforcorrectandstandardbehaviourinusinglanguage,itisprescriptive.(traditionalgram