《绿皮书》种族歧视平等

福州大学本科生毕业论文PAGE18PAGE18ContentsTOC\o"1-3"\h\uChineseAbstract 2EnglishAbstract 31.Introduction 41.1AGeneralDescriptionofGreenBook 41.2TheCharactersinGreenBook 42.LiteratureReview 52.1ResearchesonGreenBook 52.2ResearchesonRacism 63.ThePhenomenaofRacialDiscrimination 83.1

RacialDiscriminationinGreenBook 83.2

RacialDiscriminationin1960s 94.AmericanCivilRightsMovement 104.1TheDevelopmentofCivilRightsMovement 114.2AchievementsandLimitationsofNonviolentResistance 114.3TheDevelopmentandImpactofViolentConflicts 135.TheStatusQuoofAfricanAmericans 146.Conclusion 15References 17透析电影《绿皮书》中20世纪60年代美国社会对黑人的种族歧视摘要电影《绿皮书》讲述了黑人钢琴艺术家唐·谢利雇佣了一位意大利裔美国保镖托尼·利普一起南下巡演的故事，绿皮书这一关键线索贯穿整部电影，通过一路上的所见所闻所感来揭露二十世纪美国社会对黑人的种族歧视。该论文从电影介绍、种族歧视现象以及民权运动方面来探讨20世纪60年代的美国种族歧视。以便人们对在教育、就业、住房与社会福利等方面存在种族歧视的现象，以及民权运动的发展，从“非暴力”抵抗到暴力冲突有一定的了解。同时也将对比美国黑人的现状从而了解种族歧视在美国是否有得到改善，由此能够深刻反思人类这一悲剧，获得领悟，为人类平等贡献一份力量。关键词：《绿皮书》；种族歧视；平等AnalysisoftheRacisminAfro-Americanin1960sfromGreenBookAbstractThefilmGreenBooktellsthestoryoftheblackpianoartistDonShelleyhiringanItalian-AmericanbodyguardTonyLippetoasouthtour.GreenBookisacrucialcluethroughoutthewholemovietorevealracialdiscriminationagainstblackpeopleinAmericansocietyinthe1960s.ThisdissertationdiscussesracialdiscriminationintheUnitedStatesinthe1960sfromsomeaspects:filmintroduction,racialdiscrimination,andtheCivilRightsMovement.Therefore,peoplecanhaveacomprehensiveunderstandingofthemanifestationofracialdiscriminationineducation,employment,housingandsocialwelfare,aswellasthedevelopmentoftheCivilRightsMovement,from“non-violent”resistancetoviolentconflicts.Atthesametime,theauthorwillcomparethecurrentsituationofAfricanAmericanstounderstandwhetherracialdiscriminationhasimprovedintheUnitedStates,soastoprofoundlyreflectonthetragedyofhumanbeings.Wewillgaininsightintothisandcontributetohumanequality. Keywords:GreenBook;racialdiscrimination;equality1.IntroductionAGeneralDescriptionofGreenBookBasedonthetruestoryofblackpianistDonShelley,thefilmtellsthestoryofItalian-AmericanbodyguardTonywithracialdiscriminationwhoishiredbyDon,todrivehimtothesouthforatwo-monthtour.AccordingtotheGreenBook,amanualthatmapsoutunwelcomingrestaurants,hotelsandotherplacesforblackstoavoidinordertomakeblackpeoplehaveapleasanttrip,Tonyarrangedthistour.Nevertheless,theirjourneytothesouthwasmarkedbydiscordantinterludesandfriction.GreenBook,starringViggoMortensenandMahershalaAli,hasbeenwinningawardsthroughoutthenorthAmericanfilmawardsseasonsinceitspremiereinSeptember2018,winningthreeOscarsin2019:BestMotionPictureoftheYear,BestWriting,OriginalScreenplayandBestPerformancebyanActorinaSupportingRole.ThelenslanguageofGreenBookisthatitsynchronizestheemotionofthecharacterswiththefeelingsoftheaudiencebyoverlappingclosedspaceandopenspace,whicheffectivelystimulatestheaudience’sdesiretowatchandemotionalresonance.GreenBookisalongjourneybasedonmusic,butachievedakindoffriendshipacrossracialdiscriminationandclass,andfinallyinfluencedthestatusquoofracialdiscrimination.Chekov,afamousmasterofliterature,oncesaidthat“Thereisnothemeinlife,everythingismixed:profoundandshallow,greatandsmall,tragicandcomical”(王群,2018(06):101).ThisuniqueformofartisticexpressionhasbeenfullyconfirmedinthefilmGreenBook:racism,asahistoricallyracialtragedy,ispresentedintheformofdrama,inordertomaketheaudiencefeeltheunderlyingproblemsconveyedbythefilminahappyandrelaxedatmosphere.1.2TheCharactersinGreenBookAlthoughTony’sfamilyfinancialcircumstancesarenotasgoodasDon’s,hisfamilywasveryhappy,andhiswifetoleratedhisfoibles,andagreedthathecouldtravelwithDon.Ontheroad,TonygraduallyunderstoodandinfluencedDon,makingDontrytoeatfriedchicken,throwitoutofthewindow,lookforfreeaswellaseasylifeandlethimbethetrueself.Knowingthathisrelationshipwithhisfamilywasnotgood,Tonytaughthimtotaketheinitiativetoengagewiththesociety,andthenDonplayedwiththeblackband,enjoyedthebar.Thisisthebestexpressionofcross-racialfriendship.Duringtheroadtrip,Tonyshowedhiscivicimageinmanyaspects,foul-mouthed,littering,publicurination,greedyforsmalladvantages.Don,ontheotherhand,hadgoodmanners,paidattentiontoetiquetteandpronunciation,alwayssmiledandrespectedothers.Asanexcellentmusician,Donstillsufferedfromunfairtreatmentforhisefforts,buthemaintainedhisself-respect.Hesaidthat“youonlywinwhenyoumaintainyourdignity.”DonknewthatthefarthersouthhewentintheUnitedStates,themoreseriousracialdiscriminationbecame.ButhestillchosetogiveuphishighsalaryinNewYorkforthesakeofhisdreamandbeingacceptedbymorepeople.Hesufferedbothphysicallyandmentally.Whatwasitfor?Attheendofthefilm,theanswerwasgiven.Hewasamanofprincipleanddignity.Hewasnotreconciledtothecurrentsituationanddidnotwanttosubmittoit.Becausehesaid,“geniusisnotenough,onlycouragecanchangetheheart.”Inthecontextofsociety,differentpeoplehavedifferentattitudestowardsdestiny.Sincewecannotchangesociety,weshouldlearntochangeourselves,sticktoourdreamsandtryourbesttobeourselves.2.LiteratureReviewResearchesonGreenBookAssoonasGreenBookwasreleased,ittriggeredheateddiscussionsathomeandabroad.ThefilmispopularinChina.Chinesepeoplehopetointroducemoreexcellentfilmsandtomakesuchgoodfilmonourown.Inforeigncountries,therearedifferentopinionsonGreenBook,mostofwhichcriticizethattheanti-racialfilmitselfistheevidenceofracialdiscrimination.TheyquestionedthattheGreenBookwaswrittenbysomeonewhohadnotbeenraciallydiscriminatedagainst.Justbecauseofpoliticalcorrectness,itwontheOscarforBestMotionPictureoftheYear.OtherscommentedthatthismovieistheworstmovieafterCrash(the78thAcademyAwards).Inordertoachievetheexpressionofthethemeandemotionofthefilm,itisnormalforthescreenwritertomodifyandprocessthestoriesofrealpeople.TheforeignfilmindustrybelievesthatGreenBookhasbrokenthroughthiscategory,whichisalmosttampering.Thefilmpresupposesapositionwithseriousprejudicefromthestageofcreation.AccordingtothereportofShadow&ActinDecember2018,therelationshipbetweenTonyandDoncannotbecalledfriendship.Afterthetour,theyquicklyendedtheirpartnership.MauriceShirley,DonShirley'sbrother,describedthefilmas“asymphonyoflies”.Amongthemanycontroversialvoices,“MagicalNegro”and“WhiteSavior”hasbeenrepeatedlymentionedbyWesterncritics.TheformerreferstoacommonblackimageinHollywood’s“BuddyComedy”,whichexiststosaveorhelpWhitepartners.Theconceptof“MagicalBlackPeople”wasfirstputforwardbyChristopherJohnFarley,whichreferstothefixedimageofblacksupportingrolethatoftenappearsinHollywoodmoviestohelpthewhiteprotagonist.“WhitesaviorisacommonimageinHollywoodmovies,whichcontainstheparadigmofwhitecharacterssavingcoloredrace”(Hughey,2014:252).Theideaof“WhiteSavior”isalsoreflectedinthemovieAvatar.“Theimageof‘WhiteSavior’originatesfromthelackofsubstantialsocialinteractionbetweenmostwhiteAmericansandotherethnicgroups”(Hughey,2014:252).ButascommentatorMoniqueJudgesaid,themeaningofthisfilmisnottoendracismorincreasetheguiltofwhitepeople.Becausetherealityhasnotchangedsofar.GreenBook,asaprimeronracism,isworthwatching.Onthecontrary,GreenBookhasconqueredChineseaudienceswithitstearfulplots,full,three-dimensionalcharactersanddetailssinceitsreleasein2019.Manypeopleparticipatedintheevaluationofthefilm,andmorepeoplebegantopayattentiontoracialdiscrimination.“ThefilmGreenBookinthethemeofthechoiceisquiteinnovative.ThekeycluethroughoutthefilmisGreenBook,whichwasoncepopularinthesouthoftheUnitedStates.Throughaseriesofeventsandthedepictionofthetwoprotagonists,itdescribedandrespondedtothetrendandproblemsofracialdiscriminationinsocietyatthattime”(张晓焕,2019(05):71).Asakindofcomprehensiveart,filmintegrateswithcharacters,musicandimages.Ithastheincomparableintuitivenessandinterestinaudio-visualperformance.“Thefilmcombinesnarrativeandmetaphortotrulyachievetheartisticvalueofmetaphor.Themetaphorisrootedinthesoilofreality,andisacombinationof‘historicaltruth’and‘arttruth’.Thefilmmovestheaudiencewiththecommonemotionsandtopicsofcommonconcern”(赵岚,李少洋,2019(13):66).Literally,thereisnowayofsatisfyingeveryone.Therefore,thereisalotofcontroversyaboutGreenBook.“ThefilmstillfailstogetridofthestereotypesthatarecommoninHollywoodracialissuesmovies,presentingblackcharactersandtheirhistoryfromperspectiveofwhitepeople,dilutingracialissuesinhistory,andembellishingrealitywithanexceptionalcase.Inessence,theracialissuesaresubtlydiscussedinableachedmanner,whichisacceptabletowhitemainstreamsociety”(鞠薇,2019(04):73).2.2ResearchesonRacismTounderstandracism,weneedtounderstandtheconceptofrace.“Fromtheperspectiveofsemanticlexicology,theconceptofracecontainsthefollowingmeanings:First,humanclassificationcriteriacanbebasedonskincolorandotherexternalbodycharacteristics.Second,humanracedifferencesareessentiallysubstantivedifferences,notonlysuperficialandappearancedifferences.Third,thedifferencesamongracesarereflectedinintelligence,conductandability.Forth,ifhumanbeingsareclassifiedaccordingtothesedifferences,therewillbeadistinctionbetweenpeopleofhighrankandpeopleoflowrank”(Cox,1948:402).Researchershavesimilardefinitionsofracialdiscrimination.“Racismismoreseriousthanprejudice,whichisjustaformofracism.Fromtheperspectiveofdefinition,anyactionbasedonthecontinuityofracialinjusticebelongstothecategoryofracism.Racismcanbedividedintotwotypes:explicitracismandimplicitracism”(Carmichael&Hamilton,1967:35).“AlthoughCarlvonLinné,aSwedishnaturalist,didnotusetheterm“race”inthedivisionofHomosapiens,heconnectedthecolorofskinwithculturalcharacteristics,andputforwardtheconclusionthatwhitepeoplearenobleandblackpeopleareinferior”(Tucker,1994:8).Inpracticalapplications,Westernracistsoftenputwhitepeopleinthesupremacy.“TheFrenchdiplomatGorbineau,whoisconsideredtobethe‘initiatorofracism’emphasizedthedecisiveroleofraceincultureinhisworks,andregardedwhitepeople,especiallyAryans,asabetterracethanyellowpeopleandblackpeople”(Spencer,1997:441).Ofcourse,thephenomenonofblackpeoplesufferingfromracialdiscriminationintheUnitedStatesisnotaccidental.Ithasitsprofoundreligious,historical,andtheoreticalorigins.WhiteAmericans’racialdiscriminationagainstotherraces,especiallyblacks,hastodowithreligion,whichisChristianity.ThestoryofNoah’sarkintheBibleisthatafterthefloodreceded,Noahandhisfamilysteppedoutoftheark,andhisthreesonsheadedoffinthreedifferentdirections.ThethirdsonwasHamu,“thestupidestone.”HecametoAfricaandwastheancestoroftheAfricans.Therefore,intheeyesofwhiteChristiansinAmerica,blackpeoplearethedescendantsofNoah’sstupidestson.Theyarelazy,stupidbynature,anddeservetobeenslavedanddiscriminatedagainstbythedescendantsof“virtuous”people(Doré,1974).WiththediscoveryofthenewworldbyColumbusin1492,NorthAmericasoonbecameacolonyofBritishandFrenchpowers,whichisanimportanthistoricalorigin.Theslavetradederogatedthesocialstatusofblackpeopletothelowestlevelandexacerbatedthediscriminationagainstblackpeople.Inadditiontoitshistoricalorigin,theracialdiscriminationofwhiteAmericansagainstblackpeoplehasitstheoreticalorigin,thatis,thetheoryofwhiteracialsuperiority.In1620,anEnglishpoetwroteapoemdescribingAfricansas“blackanduglyghosts”,whileEnglishpeoplewere“likeGodhimself”(Jordan,1982).“Blackpeoplearethevictimsofslavery.Theycannotmakeprogressontheirown.Theycangetsomeeducationwiththehelpofwhitepeople,buttheyareoftenhopeless”(郭九林,马威,2004:40).Theythoughtblackpeopleneedtheirhelp.Otherwise,blackpeoplewouldnotsurviveanddisappearfromthenationalcommunityoftheworld.Inrecenthistory,Chinahasneverparticipatedinslavetrade.EuropeansdidnotsellblackslavestoChina,butusedChinesepeopleasasubstituteforblackslavestoselltotheAmerica.TheChinesehavealsobeenvictimsofracialdiscrimination.AlthoughtheamountofresearchonracialdiscriminationinChinaisnotaslargeasthatinthewest,itisalsoofgreatsignificanceforreference.“Minorities,especiallyblackpeople,didnotgetdecentandlivablehousingbecauseoftheFairHousingActof1968,andstillliveinapartheidcommunities.Theconclusionisthatthegovernment’sapartheidpolicyaggravatessegregationinresidentialareas”(姬虹,2019(4):1).Thedevelopmentofmoderncapitalistlarge-scaleindustrialproductionhadagreatimpactonthepoliciesofpaternalisticracism.Theglobaleconomicdepressionofthesecondhalfofthe20thcenturyalsocontributedtotheformationoflaissez-faireracism”(石毅,2003:110).EventhoughtheCivilRightsMovementdidnotcompletelyeliminateracism,objectivelyspeaking,theU.S.governmentintendedtointroducepoliciestosolvethisproblem.TheeffortsoftheUnitedStatescanbeseenintheinaugurationofthefirstblackpresident,BarackObama.“Obama’selectionisofsomesignificanceforimprovingthesituationofracerelations,however,theminoritygroupsespeciallyAfricanAmericansstillcannotbetreatedequallyinallaspects.ThesuccessofBarackObamaandthefinalvictoryfortheendofracialdiscriminationdoesnotexistadirectcausalconnection”(赵全全,2012:9).However,onaccountofthelimitationsofthesocialsystem,theUnitedStatesisstillunabletoeradicateracism.“ThestatusofracerelationsintheUSisdeterminedbythecountry’spoliticalstructure,historicaltraditionsandideology.Withoutreformofthese,therecanbenowaytobreakthroughtheimpasseinracialdiscriminationandendtheresultingviciouscircleinracerelations,andtheproperprotectionofthehumanrightsofracialminoritiescannothappen”(Net1).ThisarticlewilltakeGreenBookasawindowtoobserveracisminAmericansocietyinthe1960s.3.ThephenomenaofRacialDiscrimination3.1RacialDiscriminationinGreenBookFieldisregardedasametaphorofBourdieu’sCulturalSociologyforspace.Fieldtheoryreferstothateveryactionofhumanisaffectedbythefieldofaction.Fieldtheorydoesnotonlyrefertothephysicalenvironment,butalsotothebehaviorofothersandmanyfactorsconnectedwithit.Asastructuredandrelativelyautonomousfieldofstruggle,differentethnicgroupscompeteforsocialstatusandothercapitalinsocialspace,andthecomplexinteractionbetweenethnicgroupsconsistsof“racialfield”.Inthenarrativestructureoflinearinterlude,thechangeoftheracialfieldfirstinducesmanybigorsmallconflicts,whichpromotestheplottoupsanddowns,solvingoneproblem,onlytofindanotheronecropup.OntheSouthtour,theaudiencewitnessedthegradualdeclineofthesocialstatusoftheblackpianists.Atthebeginningofthemovie,Tony’sracialdiscriminationwasfullydemonstrated.Twoblackrepairmencametohishouse.Whentheyfinishedtheirwork,Tony’swifebroughttwoglassesofwatertotherepairmen.Aftertheyleaved,Tonyputthecupsinagarbagecan.Besides,whenapplyingforajob,TonycannotputasidehisprejudiceandbeadriveroftheblackpianistDon.ConsideringtheeconomicstressofTony’sfamilyatthattime,hestillinsistedthathewouldrathergiveupthisgoodopportunitytomakemoneythanbeabutlerforablackman.GreenBook,thekeycluethatrunsthroughthefilm,isalsoasalientevidenceofracialdiscrimination.In1936,VictorHugoGreen,ablackpostmaninHarlemwherewasablackresidentialareainNewYork,publishedthefirsttravelguideforblackpeople,whichwascalled“theNegroMotoristGreenBook”,whichaimedtoprovidepracticalinformationsuchashotels,shopsandrestaurantsthatcouldreceiveblackpeople,soastohelpthemavoidembarrassmentandmaketheirtripsmoreenjoyable,whichwasexactlywhatTonydid.Thisisalsothetitleofthisfilm.Atthebeginningofthejourney,hehadtotakehiswalletwithhimwhenhegotoutofthecarandwenttothetoiletforTonydidn’ttrustDon.However,asthetourgraduallywentsouthandTonywitnessedDon’spianotalentandbeentreatedunequal,Tonychangedhisattitude,putdownhisguardandriskednoefforttoprotectDon.WhenDongotdrunkinabaraloneatnight,hewassurroundedandbeatenbyagroupofwhitepeople.ThewhitementhoughtthatDoncouldbehumiliatedatwilljustbecauseofhisskincolor.ThankstoTony,hewasabletoescape.Anothersceneinthemovie,DonandTonycametoaluxuriousmanor,theownerofthemanorpolitelyreceivedthem,butherefusedtoofferfittingserviceasDonwasablackman.Moreover,duringtheintermissionoftheperformance,theothertwomusicianscouldusethebathroombecausetheywerewhite.Doncouldonlyusethelatrineinasimpleshedinyard.EvenifDonwasapianoofhighstatusathome,playedinWhiteHouse,hecouldonlyacceptthetreatmentofblackpeople.Inordertoshowresistance,DonimmediatelyaskedTonytodrivehimbacktothehoteltogotothebathroom.GreenBookadoptsthethreesectionsstructureof“North-South-North”.OnChristmasEve,TonyandDonreturnedtoNewYork.Whenthephysicalpositionwasfinished,thebrokenorderintheroadwasalsoreset.3.2RacialDiscriminationin1960sInanymulti-ethniccountry,thereareethnicrelations,andthegovernment’spolicyofdealingwithethnicissuesisalsocalledethnicpolicy.IntheDeclarationofIndependence,theUnitedStatesdeclaredthat“Allmenarecreatedequal”,butforalongtime,ithasbeenpursuingapolicyofracialdiscrimination.ThisresultedintheingrainedhostilityanddissatisfactionamongAmericannations,andsometimesnationalconflictsevendevelopedtothelevelofwar.Politicaloppression,unequalrighttoeducation,unequalemploymentopportunitiesandobviousracialsegregationinpublicfacilitiesarethemostcommonmanifestationsandreflectionsofprejudiceanddiscrimination.Thebiasedenforcementofthelawbythepoliceinthe1960scauseddiscontentandcomplain.Inthe1990s,theAmericansocietyputforwardtheterm“racialprofiling”,whichwasdefinedbytheMinistryofJusticeas“thepolicetakeactionagainstsomeoneanddeterminethattheyareengagedinacertaincriminalactonlyaccordingtotheirrace,ethnicityororiginalnationality,ratherthantheiractsorotherobtainedinformation”(姬虹,2006:60).Althoughthisconceptwasputforwardinthe1990s,italsoappliedtothebiasedlawenforcementofthepoliceinthe1960s.Thepoliceoftenusedtheirpowertocarryoutlong-terminterrogationandpatrol,andevenarrestblackpeople.Whentherewasaconflictbetweenthewhitepoliceandtheblackpeople,thepolicearresttheblackpeopleatwill,orevenshootthem.Thepublicmightthinkthatthepolicehaveabusedtheirpower,butincourt,inordertofacilitatethepolicetocarryoutviolentpersecutionofblackpeople,theresultofsentencingwasoftenthatthepolicewerenotguilty.Inademocraticsociety,educationmustenablechildrentodeveloptheirpotentialasmuchaspossible,andenablethemtofullyparticipateinAmericansociallife,especiallyforchildrenfromethnicminoritiesandslums.In1954,thefederalcourtgaveblackpeopleequaleducationrightsinthelegalsense,whichalsobroughtopportunitiesforthedevelopmentofblackeducation.Butrecognitioninthesenseoflawwasnotequaltorecognitioninreality,andtheimplementationwasstillcontrolledbywhitepeople.The“Meredithenrollmentevent”in1962wasanexcellentevidence.Meredith,ablackmanfromMississippiwhowasdeniedadmissiontoastateuniversitytwice,suedtheauthoritiesforracialdiscrimination.ButBarnett,thegovernorofArkansas,wasadownrightracist,hesenttwohundredpoliceofficerstostopMeredithfromenrolling.Finally,withtheinterventionofPresidentKennedy,theyenteredtheschoolundertheprotectionofthefederalarmy.Thelowlevelofblackeducationleadstothepooremploymentandcompetitivenessofblackpeople,whichleadstoaseriesofdisastersforblackpeople.Blackpeoplehavetheirowngoalsandaspirations,butwithoutthechancetoachievethem,theresultswillonlybehopeless(Harrington,1997).Intermsofhousingconditionsandwelfareofblackpeople,accordingtotheTurnerReport,41%ofblackpeopleinAmericancitieslivedbelowthepovertyline,comparedwith23.8%ofwhitepeopleinthesameperiod.In1966,thepovertyrateintheUnitedStateswasonly15%ofthepopulation,ofwhichthepovertyrateofblackpeoplewasfourtimesthatofwhitepeople.Thepovertyrateofblackfamiliesinthecommunityreached30.7%,whilethatofwhitefamilieswasonly8.8%(Briggs,1968:205).Duetotheimperfectionofwelfaresystemandmedicalsecuritysystem,highmorbidityandmortalityrateappear,whichcausedaviciouscircle.Blackpeoplecouldnotadapttothedevelopmentofmodernsociety.Thelowlevelofcultureandtheunderdevelopmentofeconomycontributedtomoraldepravity.Theft,gambling,prostitution,drugsandothercrimesusedtohappenallthetime.Neighborsactedasstrangers,andblackpeople’sinternalconflictswereincreasing.AmericanCivilRightsMovementTheCivilRightsMovementbeganwiththestruggleinthecourts,wherethemajorityofblackpeopleappealedtosatisfytheirlegitimaterights.However,thecourt’sdecisiondidnotmeanthatitcouldbewellimplementedinrealsociety,andthelawhaditsownweakness.Blackpeoplejoinedthepeacefulmarch.Butthewhiteracistsbrutallysuppressedtheblackpeople,whichshowedthatsimplepeacefulresistancecouldnotchangetheseriousproblemofracialdiscrimination.4.1TheDevelopmentofCivilRightsMovementFromthecourtstruggleinthe19thcentury,blackpeoplebegantosafeguardtheirrightsandinterests.Inthe1960s,theUnitedStatesenteredaperiodofgreatsocialchange.BlackpeoplepushedthesocialimprovementtoaclimaxintheperiodoftheCivilRightsMovement.Butblackpeopledidnotlaunchdirectrevolutions.Theytriedtousepeacefulmethodstostriveforequalityandprotecttheirrights.Intheperiodbefore1964,theyoftenadoptedpeaceful,non-violentsit-in,demonstrations,paradesandsoon.Theseordinarypeopledestroyedwhitesupremacy,revivedAmericanliberalism,andinspiredtheworld(Steigerwald,1995).Butthesenonviolentwaysgivewhitepeopleanexcusetosuppress.Moreextremewhiteracistsendeachother’slivesinexchangefortheirso-called“whitesupremacy”victory.From1955,whenMontgomeryboycottedthebusmovement,themovementforracialequalityseemedlikeaseriesofdramasinwhichwhitepeopleplayedtheroleofvillainsandblackpeopleplayedtheroleofmartyrs(Manchester,1984).MartinLutherKing,a26-year-oldblackpriestofthecity,wasdestinedtoleadthemovement.By1963,Birmingham,Alabamawhereracialdiscriminationwasmostdeep-rooted,brokeoutmassprotests.“Blacksarelessreticentthantheyusedtobe,andtheyrespondedtothepolice’sprovocation”(刘绪贻,2001:376).Birminghamincidenthasobviouscharacteristics.Thewayofmovementhasbrokenthroughthescopeofnon-violenceandbecomeanotherturningpointofAfricanAmericanmovementafterthewar.Thereisalimittothepatienceofblackpeople.Inthelatermovement,blackpeoplerealizedthattheyweregoingtofaceagroupofwhitethugswithextremeracistthinking,sotheygraduallyresistedandusedviolencetofightback.InAugust1963,MartinLutherKingorganizedamorepowerfulactivitywhichwascalled“MarchtoWashington”.TwohundredthousandblackandwhitepeoplegatheredinWashingtonforafar-reachingdemonstrationtodemandequalrights.TheylistenedtoMartinLutherKing’smostfamousspeechinhislife,IHaveaDream,infrontoftheLincolnMemorialandtheWashingtonMonument.Thisisaspeechthatcaninspireblackpeople’sdesireforequalityandfreedom,aswellasdeeplytouchedtheheartsofAfricanAmericans.4.2AchievementsandLimitationsofNonviolentResistanceTheoccurrenceof“non-violent”resistancemadetheconflictbetweenblacksandtheAmericanauthoritiescontinuouslydeep.Theviolentsuppressionbywhiteracistsalsograduallyexpandedthescaleoftheconflictsandmadethesocietymoreandmorechaotic.Inordertoeasethesocialconflictsandreducetheconflictsbetweenblacksandwhites,thefederalgovernmentmadeachainofpolicyadjustments.Tosomeextent,thesepolicyadjustmentsalsohelpedblackpeopleandchangedtheirsociallife,buttheeffectoftheirachievementswasnegligibleandtheycouldnotmeettheblackpeople'sdemandforequalrights.DuringKennedy’spresidency,hewantedtoexerthispowertoworkwithblackleaderstoeliminateracialprejudice.Ontheotherhand,theKennedyadministrationwasunderunprecedentedpressureduetotheincreasinglyfierceblackpeoplestruggleforequalrightsandthetendencyofpublicopiniontosupportandsympathize.UndertheeffortsoftheKennedybrothers,thereweresignificantimprovementsinvotingrights,protectionsforblacksinsouthareas.InJune1963,Kennedysentafar-reachingandcomprehensivecivilrightsbilltocongress.However,Kennedy’sassassinationputthe