法学专业英语教程之期法律英语末复习

UnitOne:IntroductiontotheAmericanLegalSystem1.Whatislaw?Thoughweusedtheword“law”veryofteninourdailyconversations,weuseitinsomanythatthereisnosimpleanswertothisquestion.译：何为法律？纵使我们在日常对话中经常用到“法律”一词，我们仍然无法对这个问题简要回答。2.Law

has

been

defined

as

a

set

of

rules

that

govern

the

actions

of

people

in

a

community.Theserulesmustbefollowedbycitizens,andviolationoftheserulesmaygiverisetoacauseofactioninthecourts.Thisviewseeslawasasetoffixedprinciplesknowntolawyersandjudges,ignoranceifwhichexcusesnoone,noteventhelessknowledgeorlessaffluentmembersofsociety.译：法律曾被定义为规范一个群体中人们的行为的一套规则。公民必须遵守这些规则，违反这类规则将会引起诉讼的案由。这种观点将法律视为一套被律师和法官所知悉的、固定的规则，不了解这条规则的人并不能因此被免除责任，即使他们文化水平低或经济条件差也不能例外。3.Anotherviewisthatlawisamethodofestablishingorderbymaintainingauthorityifaruleroverthoseruled.Accordingtothisview,lawbeginsonlywhenacoerciveapparatuscomesintoexistencetomaintaincontrolthroughenforcementofsocialnorms.The

control

group

need

not

be

agents

of

a

political

entity,butmaybelabor,business,orchurchorganizations.Andthecoercioncanbepsychologicalaswellasphysical.译：另一种观点认为，法律是统治者通过保持其权威，建立秩序规则，统治被统治者的一种方法。根据这种观点，只有在强制力的机构产生且其通过实施社会规范来维持控制时，法律才开始形成。控制集团不一定要是政治实体的代表，可以是工人、商人或教会组织。这种强制可以是心理的也可以是生理的。Mostobserves,however,believethatlawexistonlyinaformalsettingthatinvolvesthelegislative,judicial,andexecutivearmsofapoliticalbodyanditssystem.Thisviewholdsthatalthoughrulesareanimportantpartoftheprocess,theemphasisisuponactionsforthepurposeofadherencetothoserules.Lawisthusdefinedastheformalmeansofsocialcontrolthatinvolvestheuseofrulesthatareinterpreted,andareenforceable,bythecourtsofapoliticalcommunity.Thehallmarkoflawistheobligationtoactinlinewithnormsauthoritativelydetermined.译：多数人认为，法律只存在于一种包含政治实体的立法、司法和行政机构及其制度的正式的环境中。这种观点认为，尽管规则是总过程中一个重要的组成部分，重点却在于为使人们遵守这些规则而采取的行动。因此，法律被定义为一种正式的社会控制手段，这涉及了规则的使用和理解，还包含了可以由法院这个政治团体来强制实行。法律的标志是人人都必须遵守权威机构认定的行为规则。Lawsmaybeclassifiedinmanyways.Theyaresometimesclassifiedassubstantivelawandprocedurallaw.Therulesoflawthatareusedtoresolvedisputesarereferredtosubstantivelaw.Thelegalproceduresthatdeterminehowalawsuitisbegun,howthetrialisconducted,howappealsaretaken,andhowajudgmentisenforcedarecalledprocedurallaw.Substantivelawdefinesrights,andprocedurallawestablishestheproceduresbywhichtheserightsareenforcedandprotected.Forexample,AandBhaveenteredintoaagreement,andAclaimsBhasbreachedtheagreement.TherulesthatprovideforbringingBintocourtandfortheconductofthetrialarerathermechanicalandtheyconstituteprocedurallaw.WhethertheagreementwasenforceableandwhetherAisentitledtodamagesaremattersofsubstanceandwouldbedeterminedonthebasisofthesubstantivelawofcontracts.译：法律分类有很多种划分方法。有时它们被划分为为实体法和程序法。用于实际裁决纠纷的法律被称为实体法。决定诉讼何时开始、审判如何进行、如何上诉、判决如何被执行的法律程序被称为程序法。实体法界定权利，而程序法确认施行和保护这些权利的程序。举个例子，A和B达成了协议，A主张B违反约定。将B推上法庭和支持审判所依据的规则是相当机械的，这些规则就是程序法。至于上述协议是否可执行以及A是否应得到损失赔偿则是实质性的问题，将取决于实体的合同法。Lawisalsofrequentlyclassifiedintopubliclawandprivatelaw.Publiclawincludesthosebodiesoflawthataffectthepublicgenerally.Itcanbefurtherdividedintoconstitutionallaw,administrativelawandcriminallaw.Privatelawincludestheareasoflawthatconcerntherelationshipsbetweenindividualsinanorganizedsociety.Itcoversthesubjectsofcontracts,tortsandproperty,eachofwhichcanbesubdividedintoseveralbodiesoflaw.ThelawoftortsistheprimarysourceoflitigationinAmerica.Itdealswithwrongfulactsagainstapersonorhispropertyandisbasedonthetheorythatinacivilizedsociety,peoplewhoinjureotherpersonsortheirpropertymustcompensatethemfortheirloss.译：法律也经常被分为公法和私法。公法通常包括影响公众的法律。公法又可进一步细分为宪法、行政法和刑法。私法包括涉及有组织的社会中个人间相互关系的法律领域。它涵盖了合同、侵权和知识产权等领域，每一部分又可以再细分为许多方面。侵权法是美国诉讼的主要依据。它处理的是侵犯个人权利的不法行为，它的理论依据是:在文明社会里,危害他人或他人财产者必须赔偿损失。Classificationoflawaccordingtosubjectmattercanoftenbedifficultbecausethelawisindeedaseamlessweb,andoverlappingisinevitableifwedivideitaccordingtoaclear-cutdefinition.Assumethatapersonisinjuredbyaproducthehaspurchased.Thelawofsales,eventhoughapartofthelawofcontracts,containsseveralaspectsthatcouldbestbelabeledabranchofthelawoftorts.Therefore,itisapparentthateventhegeneralclassificationofcontractandtortisnotaccurateindescribingthesubjectmatterofvariousbodiesoflaw.译：根据不同的内容将法律进行分类通常很难，因为法律是一个没有缝隙的网络，如果我们根据法律清晰明确的定义划分法律，那么相互交叉是无法避免的。设想某人被他所购买的产品伤害。销售法尽管是合同法的一个部分，它的不少内容如果将其列为侵权法的一个分支也许是最合适。所以很明显，即便是合同法和侵权法这样的大体的分类在描述各种法律的内容时也是不尽准确的。ChoiceofforumalsoaddstothecomplexityoflitigationinAmerica,becausedualityisalsopresentinAmerica'scourtsystem.Insteadofoneunifiedsetofcourts,Americahasfiftyonesets,eachofwhichoperatesindependentlyoftheothers,andeachofwhichiscompletewithitsowntrialandappellatecourts.译：选择法院也增加了美国诉讼的复杂性，因为美国的法院系统同样存在双轨制。取代一个统一的法院系统，美国拥有51个法院系统，他们彼此独立运行且拥有完整的审判和上诉法院。Thestatecourtsarethecourtsinwhichdisputesareordinarilyheard.Itstrialcourtsincludecourtsoflimitedjurisdictionandcourtsofgeneraljurisdiction.译：纠纷的解决通常是州法院审理的。其初审法院包括有限管辖权法院和一般管辖权法院。Moststateshavetrialcourtsoflimitedjurisdiction.Theseinferiorcourtsareauthorizedtohearanddeterminecasesinvolvingarelativelysmallamountofmoneyorparticularsubjectmatters.Thenamesandauthorityofcourtsoflimitedjurisdictionvaryfromstatetostate.译：大多数州有有限管辖权的初审法院。这些低级法院被授权审理和判决小额诉讼或特定种类的诉讼。这些有限管辖权法院的名称和权力因州而异。Allstateshavecourts,usuallyorganizedalongcountylines,forhearingcasesofalltypes,unlimitedbysubjectmatteroramountincontroversy.Suchcourtsarereferredtoasthetrialcourtsofgeneraljurisdiction.Thecourtofgeneraljurisdictionisknownbydifferentnamesindifferentstates:inCaliforniaitistheSuperiorCourt1;inNewYork,itistheSupremeCourt2;inmanystatesitistheCircuitCourt3;inotherstatesitisknownastheDistrictCourt4,theCountyCourt5,theCourtofCommonPleas6,andothernames.Whateveritsnamethisisthecourtwhichhearsallcasesthatarenotchanneledelsewhere.译：所有的州都拥有一种法院，通常根据郡县的边界划分，审理所有种类的案件，不受案件种类和诉讼金额的限制。这类法院就是有一般管辖权的初审法院。该类法院在不同州有不同的叫法：在加州它被称作高级法院1；在纽约它被称作最高法院2；在很多州它被称为巡回法院3；在其他州它被称为州地方法院4、地方法院5或普通法院6等。不论它叫什么名字，这类法院都审理所有的案件，不会被移送到任何其他法院。（斜体为自己的蹩脚翻译）Moststatespermitappealofthedeterminationsmadebycourtsoflimitedjurisdiction.Insomestates,alitigantdissatisfiedwiththeresultofthedecisionbytheinferiorcourtmayrequestthatthecaseberetriedinthecourtofgeneraljurisdiction.Insomestates,theappealtothecourtofgeneraljurisdictionisthefinalappealandinothers,thedecisionofthecourtofgeneraljurisdictionmaybereviewedbyfurtherappeal.译：大多数州的允许上诉的决定由限制管辖权法院作出。在一些州，一个当事人不服低级法院作出的判决结果可能请求由一般管辖权法院重审。在一些州，一般管辖权法院对上诉案件的审理是终审上诉而在另一些州一般管辖权法院作出的判决可能会被再上诉。Allstatespermitappellatereviewofthedecisionsofcourtsofgeneraljurisdiction.Today,theprocedureforobtainingappellatereviewisusuallyreferredtoasanappeal.Inafewstatesthereisbutoneappellatecourtforappealsfromthetrialcourtsofgeneraljurisdiction.SuchanappellatecourtisusuallyknownastheSupremeCourtofthestate,butinsomestatesitisknownastheCourtofAppealsorbysomeothername.Inotherstatestherearetwolevelsofappellatecourts,theintermediateappellatecourts（usuallyknownasthecourtsofappeals）andthesupremecourt.Alltypesofappealsfromthetrialcourtsaretakentotheintermediateappellatecourts;furtherreviewinthestatesupremecourtistakenonlyatthediscretionofthesupremecourtoruponspecialrequestoftheintermediateappellatecourt.译：所有州都允许对一般管辖权法院的判决进行上诉审查。如今，为获取上诉审查所经的程序通常被称为上诉。有少数的州有至少法院一个受理来自一般管辖权法院的初审上诉案件。这类法院通常被称为最高法院，在有些州也被称为上诉法院等其他名称。在另一些州，上诉法院分为两级，即中级上诉法院（通常也被称为上诉法院）和最高法院。来自初审法院的所有类型的上诉都由中级上诉法院关系；只有在行使自由裁量权或中级上诉法院的特殊要求时才会被最高法院管辖。TheFederalcourtsystemparallelsthecourtsystemsofthestatesexceptthatthefederalcourtsarecourtsoflimitedsubjectmatterjurisdiction.译：联邦法院系统平行于州法院系统，联邦法院的对事管辖权是有限的。Theprincipaltrialcourtofthefederalsystemisthedistrictcourt.Thedistrictcourtsareorganizedalongterritoriallinescalleddistricts.Eachdistrictcomprisesastateoraportionofastate.译：联邦体制最重要的初审法院是州地方法院。这类法院是根据由领土接线划分出来的州设立的。每个区域由一个州或一个州的一部分组成。Thefederaldistrictcourtshavejurisdictionoverseveraltypesofcases.Aprincipaltypeincludesactionsbetweencitizensofdifferentstateswheretheamountincontroversyexceeds$10,000.Thisisknownasthe"diversityjurisdiction"ofthefederalcourts.Asecondprincipaltypeincludesactionsbyindividuals"arisingunder"federallaw,knownasthe"federalquestion"jurisdictionofthefederalcourts.AthirdprincipaltypeoffederaljurisdictionisactionsbyoragainsttheFederalGovernmentanditsagencies.译：联邦地区法院对多类案子有管辖权。非常重要的一类包含当事人不在同一州、争议标的额超过1万美金的案件。第二类案件包括判决理由实质是建立于对联邦宪法或法律的解释时适用联邦法院而引起的个人案件，这类案件被称为“联邦问题”管辖权案件。第三类由联邦法院管辖的重要的案件是涉及联邦政府及其机构的案件。DeterminationsmadeinthefederaldistrictcourtsareordinarilyappealabletotheUnitedStatesCourtsofAppeals,theintermediateappellatecourtsofthefederalsystem.TheCourtsofAppeals,formerlyknownastheCircuitCourts,principallyareorganizedterritoriallybygroupsofstatesknownascircuits.ThereareatpresentthirteenCourtsofAppeals,elevenbearingnumbers（FirstCircuit,SecondCircuit,etc.）withthetwelfthbeingtheCourtofAppealsfortheDistrictofColumbiaandthethirteenthbeingtheCourtofAppealsfortheFederalCircuit.EachCircuitCourtconsistsofseveraljudgeswhoordinarilysitinpanelsofthreeforeachcase4.译：联邦区法院作出的判决通常可向由美国联邦上诉法院上诉，即联邦系统的中级上诉法院审理。上诉法院，原先被称为巡回法院，主要是由地域相近的几个州“划圈”组合而成的。（瞎翻译的）现如今至少有13个上诉法院，11个bearingnumbers（第一巡回、第二巡回等），第十二个是哥伦比亚区的上诉法院，第十三个是联邦巡回上诉法院。每个巡回法院由若干法官组成，每个案件通常由3个法官组成合议庭审理。ThehighestcourtinthefederalsystemisofcoursetheSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStates.TheSupremeCourthasoriginaljurisdictionoveraverylimitedclassofcases,chieflyactionsbetweenstates.Itsappellatejurisdictioncoverscasesoriginatinginthelowerfederalcourtsaswellascertaintypesofcasesoriginatinginstatecourts.Potentially,anycaseoriginatinginafederaldistrictcourtmaybetakentotheSupremeCourt.MostofsuchcasesmustbeappealedinitiallytothecourtsofappealsandmaybethereaftertakentotheSupremeCourtatthelatter'sdiscretion.Ofcasesoriginatinginstatecourts,onlythosepresentingquestionsoffederallawmaybeconsideredbytheSupremeCourt.译：联邦法院系统的最高法院是美国最高法院。该法院只在非常有限的情况下拥有原始管辖权，主要管辖州际案件。其上诉管辖权涵盖一些源于联邦下级法院以及某些类型的情况下源于州法院的案件。潜在地，任何源于联邦区法院的案子都有可能被上交最高法院。其中大多数的案子在初次上诉后，仍然可以由最高法院对其行使自由裁量权。而源于州法院的案件，只有在涉及联邦问题的时候才会被最高法院考虑。UnitThree:TheAdversarySystemintheAmericanJudicialProcessThelawofprocedureisthebodyofrulesthatgovernsorprovidestheframe-workofthejudicialprocess.Thejudicialprocess,inturn,guidestheoperationofcourtsinthedeterminationoflegalcontroversies,or,asalegalscholardefinesit,thejudicialprocessisthedecisionbythecourtofcontroversiesbetweenindividuals（orbetweenanindividualandtheState）byrationalandnotmerelypersonalconsiderationssupposedlybasedonlawandjustice.Thesedefinitionsareterriblyinadequate,buttheymayserveourpurposeifweunderstandfromthemthefollowingpoints；（1）Thejudicialprocessdealsnotwithabstractquestionsorhypotheticalsituationsbutwithactualcontroversiesbetweenrealparties；（2）Thesecontroversiesaresuchthatthecommunitywilldirectitscollectiveforcetotheirresolution；（3）Thisresolutionproceedsnotarbitrarilybutaccordingtosomestandardsofgeneralapplication；（4）Thesestandardsareappliedinaproceedingthatfollowssomefixedlinessetoutbyasystemofrulesknownasprocedure.译：法律程序是一套管理司法程序并为之提供框架的规则。司法程序也反过头来，在确定法律争议时引导法庭的运作，或者像法律学者一样为其下定义，司法程序是法院判决私人间（或私人和国家间）争议的过程，这种判决照理应是基于法律和争议的理性考虑，而不仅仅是基于针对个人的考虑而做出的。这些定义有严重的缺陷，但若我们从以下几点去理解它们，它们可能会服务于我们：（1）司法程序解决的不是抽象问题或假想情形，而是真实的当事人之间的客观存在的纠纷；（2）这些纠纷将会由社会的强制力直接解决；（3）这些解决程序不是随意设定的，而是遵循了一些被普遍使用的程序标准；（4）这些标准被用于遵循某些固定原则的诉讼，而这些固定原则在人们称为程序法的一套规则中都有详细的描述。Therulesofprocedurearetothelitigatinglawyerregulatoryandenablinglegislation：Theytellorattempttotellhimwhatthelawyermayandmaynotdo,andtheyaffordthemeansbywhichthelawyercanbringabout,orattempttobringabout,theresultssought.译：程序法规则对诉讼律师来说既是规范性法规又是授权性法规。它试图告诉大家律师可能做什么、不可能做什么，告诉大家律师可以带来的意义，或者试图带来你寻求的答案。AdistinctiveelementoftheAmericanprocedurefarresolvinglegalcontroversiesistheadversarysystem,whichisthecharacteristicformoftrialprocedureincommonlawcountries,incivilaswellascriminalcases.Itsessentialfeatureisthatadecisionismadebyjudge,orjudgewithjury,whofindsthefactsandappliesthelawfromsubmissionsmadebypartisanadvocatesonbehalfoftheparties.Inthissystemoftrialprocedure,theresponsibilityforbeginningsuit,forshapingtheissues,andforproducingevidencerestsalmostentirelyupontheparties.Thecourttakesalmostnoactivepart.Itdoesnotdoitsowninvestigating.Itrarelyevenasksaquestion.Mostoftenitisonlyresponsibleforguidingtheproceedingaccordingtocertainproceduralrulesandformakingdecisionsonquestionsoflawthatarise.Thissystemistobecontrastedwithwhatisgenerallycalledtheinquisitorialsystem,whichisusedincountriesofthecivillawtraditionsuchasFranceandGermany.Intheinquisitorialsystemoftrial,thejudgeappliesthelawandfindsthefactsbyhisownactiveinvestigationandinquiriesattrial.译：美国法律争议解决的程序有一个与众不同之处，就是抗辩制（对抗制），这种制度也是普通法系国家在民事和形式案件审判中的程序的特征。其基本特征是由法官或法官与陪审团根据双方辩护人所提出的证据认定事实、适用法律。在这种制度下的庭审程序中，提起诉讼，蜀定争议以及出示证据都几乎完全是争议当事人的责任。法官对此是消极被动的，他们不主动调查，甚至不主动提问。法官最常做的是谨遵程序法的规定引导法庭按程序进行，据此作出当事人提出的法律问题的裁判。这一制度是与通常我们所说的纠问制相对的，纠问制主要被用于诸如发过、德国的大陆法系国家。在纠问制下的庭审中，法官通过其积极主动的调查和询问后发现证据、适用法律。Undertheadversarysystem,thescopeofthelawyer'spowerandresponsibilityiswide.Itisthelawyerwhomakestheinitialandusuallyfinaldecisionsastochoiceofcourt,sizeofclaim,natureofclaimstated,parties,extentandkindofpre-trialinvestigation,modeoftrial（whetherjuryornon-jury）,settlementoffers,extentandkindofproofs,styleofpresentationandargument,and,withinlimits,speedandvigorofpresentation.Thetrialsarelargelyproducedanddirectedbythelawyers.Theysupplytheactorsandthescript,throughthewitnessescalledandthetestimonyelicitedbydirectandcrossexamination.Judgesarecalledontointerveneonlyoccasionallyandthenbriefly,toensurethatalltheproceduralsafeguardsofdueprocessaremetandessentialfairnessisachieved.Theyruleontheadmissibilityofevidence,butthisisanegativefunctionofkeepingoutunreliableevidenceratherthananaffirmativeoneofprovidingthefactsuponwhichacaseisdetermined.译：在抗辩制下，律师的权利和义务范围广。律师从开始，通常情况下到最后都能决定选择哪个法院、索赔的数额大小、索赔的法律依据、当事人、庭前调查的范围和类型、庭审的模式（有无陪审团）、赔偿金、证据的范围和类型、陈述和抗辩的风格并在一定限度上控制陈述的语速和情绪（原意为活力）。庭审很大程度上被律师导演和控制节奏。他们提供演员和剧本，通过直接质证和交叉质证询问证人、引出其证词。法官只会偶尔地、短暂地进行干预以确保所有正当司法程序条款中的程序保障和达到基本的正义。他们对证据的可采信性进行裁决，但是这是一种消极作用，时候摈弃不可靠的证据而非提供作为案件依据的事实。Thereasonsfortheprevalenceoftheadversarysystemaremanifold,butfourarecertainlyamongthemostimportant：（1）Itisbelievedthatatruerdecisionwillbereachedastheresultofacontestdirectedbyinterestedparties.Aninterestedpartynaturallywillbemosteffectiveinseeking,discovering,andpresentingthematerialswhichwillrevealthestrengthofhisowncaseandtheweaknessofhisadversary'scase；（2）Theparties,whoafterallarethepersonsprincipallyinterestedintheresolutionofthecontroversy,shouldbearthemajorburdenofthetime,energyandcostsrequired；（3）Althoughimpartialinvestigationmaybebetterwhennofinaldecisionneedbereached,settingupsidesmakeseasierthetypeofyes-or-nodecisionthatisthoughttobenecessaryinalawsuit；（4）Sinceresorttolawhasreplacedresorttoforcethatcharacterizedprimitiveages,thehumaninstincttodobattleisbettersatisfiedbyameansofsettlingdisputesthatareverymuchinthehandsoftheparties.译：抗辩制盛行的原因有很多方面，但最重要的四个原因如下：（1）我们相信正确的判决是有利害关系的当事人互相竞争的结果。一个有利害关系的当事人将会有效率地寻求、发现并呈现其准备的材料，这些材料将会为他自己的诉求提供有力支撑并且削弱抗辩对方的诉求。（2）对争议的解决非常关心的当事人应该对时间的损耗、能力和成本的消耗负主要责任；（3）尽管在不需要作出最终决定的时候不偏不倚的调查可能更合适，但人们认为诉讼必须对“是与否”的问题作出决定，而树立对立面是这种决定更为简单。（4）因此求助于法律代替了原始时期的求助于武力，人类战斗的本能被解决争端所满足,这十分符合双方当事人的意愿。Contrastedwiththemethodsofscientificorhistoricalresearch,thissystemoffindinganswerstolegalcontroversiesseemssometimesunsatisfactory.Whenonereflectsonthefactthatundertheadversarysystemvictoryoftenturnsonfactorsotherthanthetruemeritsofthecase,thereisreasontobeskep