乔姆斯基认为小孩生来就有能力知识学习任何人类语言学习发送

乔姆斯基认为小孩生来就有能力学习任何人类语言之一张铁城发送2016、1、简介下面都是英语，没有译文。多数网友能够看懂那些孩子和大人的对话。至于，一开始看到的相关理论简介中，确实有一些生词。但是，70%左右应该是一级词汇,不信你就像我那样，试着做词汇级别统计，看看如何。乔姆斯基简介诺姆•乔姆斯基博士（AvramNoamChomsky，1928年12月7日-）或译作“荷姆斯基”，台湾常译作“杭士基”，美国哲学家、语言学家、认知学家、逻辑学家、政治评论家。乔姆斯基是麻省理工学院语言学的荣誉退休教授，他的《生成语法》被认为是20世纪理论语言学研究上的重要贡献。他对伯尔赫斯・弗雷德里克・斯金纳所著《口语行为》的评论，也有助于发动心理学的认知革命，挑战1950年代研究人类行为和语言方式中占主导地位的行为主义。他所采用以自然为本来研究语言的方法也大大地影响了语言和心智的哲学研究。他的另一大成就是建立了乔姆斯基层级：根据“文法生成力”不同而对形式语言做的分类。……正是在此期间，乔姆斯基开始更加公开地参与政治。随着他1967年在《纽约书评》上发表的一篇题为「知识分子的责任」的文章，乔姆斯基成为越南战争的主要反对者之一。从那时起，乔姆斯基便因他的政治立场而出名，对世界各地的政局发表评论，并撰写了大量著作。他对美国外交政策及美国权力合法性的批判影响深远，并因而成为富有争议的人物。他有左派的忠诚追随者，但也受到右派及自由派越来越多的批评，尤其是针对他对911事件的反应。对美国外交政策的批评给乔姆斯基带来了人身威胁。他的名字被列在特奥多・卡克辛斯基（TheodoreKaczynski,「邮箱炸弹杀手」）的预定名单上。在卡氏被捕以前，乔姆斯基让人检查收到的邮件以防炸弹。他自称也经常被警察保护，特别是在麻省理工校园的时候，虽然他本人原则上不同意这种保护。尽管对美国百般批评，乔姆斯基还是生活在美国。他的解释是：美国仍然是世界上最伟大的国家。后来他又阐发为：「国与国之间的综合比较没有什么意义，我也不会这么比较。不过美国有些成就，特别是在言论自由方面几个世纪来争得的领先地位，是值得敬仰的。”※※※※※※※※Chomskybelieveschildrenarebornwithanabilitytolearnanyhumanlanguage.iloveenglishlanguagechildlanguageacquisitiontheory-chomsky,crystal,Aitchison&piagetChomskyNoamChomskybelievesthatchildrenarebornwithaninheritedabilitytolearnanyhumanlanguage.Heclaimsthatcertainlinguisticstructureswhichchildrenusesoaccuratelymustbealreadyimprintedonthechild’smind.Chomskybelievesthateverychildhasa‘languageacquisitiondevice’orLADwhichencodesthemajorprinciplesofalanguageanditsgrammaticalstructuresintothechild’sbrain.ChildrenhavethenonlytolearnnewvocabularyandapplythesyntacticstructuresfromtheLADtoformsentences.Chomskypointsoutthatachildcouldnotpossiblylearnalanguagethroughimitationalonebecausethelanguagespokenaroundthemishighlyirregular-adult’sspeechisoftenbrokenupandevensometimesungrammatical.Chomsky’stheoryappliestoalllanguagesastheyallcontainnouns,verbs,consonantsandvowelsandchildrenappeartobe‘hard-wired’toacquirethegrammar.Everylanguageisextremelycomplex,oftenwithsubtledistinctionswhichevennativespeakersareunawareof.However,allchildren,regardlessoftheirintellectualability,becomefluentintheirnativelanguagewithinfiveorsixyears.EvidencetosupportChomsky’stheoryChildrenlearningtospeaknevermakegrammaticalerrorssuchasgettingtheirsubjects,verbsandobjectsinthewrongorder.Ifanadultdeliberatelysaidagrammaticallyincorrectsentence,thechildwouldnotice.Childrenoftensaythingsthatareungrammaticalsuchas‘mamaball’,whichtheycannothavelearntpassively.Mistakessuchas‘Idrawed’insteadof‘Idrew’showtheyarenotlearningthroughimitationalone.Chomskyusedthesentence‘colourlessgreenideassleepfuriously’,whichisgrammaticalalthoughitdoesn’tmakesense,toprovehistheory:hesaiditshowsthatsentencescanbegrammaticalwithouthavinganymeaning,thatwecantellthedifferencebetweenagrammaticalandanungrammaticalsentencewithouteverhavingheardthesentencebefore,andthatwecanproduceandunderstandbrandnewsentencesthatnoonehaseversaidbefore.EvidenceagainstChomsky'stheoryCriticsofChomsky’stheorysaythatalthoughitisclearthatchildrendon’tlearnlanguagethroughimitationalone,thisdoesnotprovethattheymusthaveanLAD-languagelearningcouldmerelybethroughgenerallearningandunderstandingabilitiesandinteractionswithotherpeople.Dialogue-ParentandChild(3yearsold)Parent:Whatdidyoudotoday?Child:Medrawedacat.(applies-edsuffixrulebutgetswrong)Parent:Youdrewacat?Child:Yeah.(understandscorrection)Parent:Whodidyouplaywithatbreaktime?Child:MeplayedwithSarahandHelen.(wrongpronoun-notlearntpassively)Parent:Thatsoundfun.Nowwhatdoyouwantfortea?Child:Dunno.Whatyouhaving?Parent:DaddyandIarehavingfish.Child:Youhavingfishes?(incorrectuseofpluralnounbutshowschildapplyingrules)Parent:Yes.I’lldoyousomefishfingersandifyou’reagoodgirlandeatthemallyoucanhaveasweetie.(applyingpluralnounrule)Child:Mewanttwosweeties.Parent:Alrightthen.NowgoandwatchPostmanPatwhileIstartthetea.Child:WhenDaddycominghome?(getsSVOordercorrectallthetime)Parent:He’llbeheresoon.DavidCrystalDavidCrystal’sTheoryOnChildLanguageAcquisitionProfessorCrystalisbestknownforhistwoencyclopaediasTheCambridgeEncyclopaediaofLanguageandTheCambridgeEncyclopaediaoftheEnglishLanguage.Sowhatdoesthishavetodowithchildlanguageacquisition?DavidCrystalhasthetheorythatchildrenlearnlanguageinfivestages,whicharen’tclearlydefinedandsometieinwitheachother.Thesestagesare:StageOne:Thisiswherechildrensaythingsforthreepurposes:TogetsomethingtheywantTogetsomeone’sattentionTodrawattentiontosomethingThentheybegintomakebasicstatementssuchas“daddycar”Duringthisstagechildrenbeginnamingthingswithsinglewordsandthenmoveontorelatingobjectswithotherthings,placesandpeople,forexample,“theremummy”.Theyalsorelateobjectswithevents,forexample,“birdgone”.Atthisearlystagetheydon’thavemuchvocabularysotheyuseintonationtoaskaquestion.Childrenusewordslike:“there,wantandallgone”toexpressafullsentence.Thiscouldbesaidthatpartofthisstageisholophrastic.StageTwo:Thisiswhenchildrenusuallyaskquestions,“where”questionscomefirst.Theirquestionsoftenbeginwithinterrogativepronouns(what,where)followedbyanounorverbsuchas“wheregone?”Childrenbecomeconcernedwithnamingandclassifyingthingsbyfrequentlyasking“Wassat?”Theymayalsobegintotalkaboutthecharacteristicsofthingsforexample:big/small.Childrenaretaughttolearnthingsinoppositepairssuchasup/downandhot/cold.StageThree:Bynowchildrenwouldbeaskinglotsofdifferentquestionsbutoftensignallingthattheyarequestionswithintonationalone,forexample:“Sallyplayingardenmummy?”Thisismadeintoaquestionbyvaryingthetoneofvoice.Childrensoonbegintoexpressmorecomplexwantsbyusingmoregrammaticallycorrectlanguage,forexample:“Iwantmummytotakeitwork”meaning“Iwantmummytotakeittowork”Verbssuchas“listen”and“know”arealsoused.Childrenrefertoeventsinthepastandlessofteninthefuture.Theyusuallytalkaboutcontinuingactionforexamples:“shestillinbed”andaskaboutthestateofactions(whethersomethingisfinishedornot)Thebasicsentencestructurehasexpandedsuchas:[subject]+[verb]+[object]+[adverboranyotherelementused]Sentenceslike:“Youdryhands”and“Amandigdownthere”begintoappearandauxiliaryverbsareusedinsentencessuchas“Iamgoing”andphraseslike“onthetable”[preposition]+[article]+[noun]StageFour:Thisiswhenchildrenuseincreasinglycomplexsentencestructuresandbeginto:ExplainthingsAskforexplanationsusingtheword:“why?”Makingawiderangeofrequests:“shallIdoit?”Nowtheyareabletousecomplexsentencestructurestheyhaveflexiblelanguagetoolsforexpressingawiderangeofmeanings.Probablythemostremarkabledevelopmentistheircomprehensionoflanguageanduseofabstractverbsforexample“know”toexpressmentaloperations.Theybegintocommunicatemeaningindirectlybyreplacingimperativessuchas“giveme”withquestions;“canIhave?”Aswellassayingwhattheymeantheynowhavepragmaticunderstandingandsuittheirutterancestocontextorsituation.Childrenalsousenegation(denial/contradiction)forexample:“hedoesn’twantone!”Theydon’trelyonintonationandsignalsanymoreastheyexplainmorefully.Theyarenowabletouseauxiliaryverbsandmayduplicatemodalverbs“please,canI,mayI”Thiscouldbeshowingthat“may”isrequiredforcourtesywhilst“can”indicatesbeingabletodosomething.AndFinally…StageFive:Bythisstagechildrenregularlyuselanguagetodoallthethingsthattheyneeditfor.Theygiveinformation,askingandansweringquestions,requestingdirectlyandindirectly,suggesting,offering,statingandexpressing.Childrenarenowabletotalkaboutthingshypotheticallyandconditionallyforexample“IfIwereyou,Iwould…”Theyarenowabletoexplainconditionsrequiredforsomethingtohappen;“You’vegotturnthetaponfirstinordertowashyourhands”Aswellasmakinggeneralreferencestopastandfuture,childrennowtalkaboutparticulartimessuchas:“aftertea”and“beforebedtime”Bythisstagechildrenareverycomfortablewithallquestionsbeginningwithwordslike:“What?”and“When?”wherethesubjectandverbarereversedsuchas“whatdoesthatmean?”乔姆斯基认为小孩生来就有能力学习任何人类语言之二张铁城发送2016、1、ScriptsStage1:Child:Allgone!Mother:Yes,themilkisallgone.Child:Mummy,here.Mother:Mummy’shere.Child:Wantmore!Mother:That’senoughmilknow.Child:No,more.Mother:Lookatdolly,she’ssleeping.Child:Dolly,there?Mother:Yes,dollyisinthebed.Child:Dollybye-bye.Stage2:Child:Where’sDaddy?Mother:Outside,look?Child:Outsidehot.Mother:Yesit’ssunny.Child:Wassat?Mother:It’sabook.Child:Bigbook.Mother:Goodgirl.Stage3:Child:Daddyissleeping?Mother:UhuhDaddy’ssleepingonthecouchisn’the?Child:Himwakeup!Mother:Nobecauseheissleeping.Thatwouldn’tbeverynicewouldit?Child:IwantDaddy.Stage4:Mother:Whatwouldyoulikeforlunch?Sandwiches?Pasta?Child:Please,may,canIhaveham?Mother:Onsandwiches?Child:*nods*Mother:What’sthemagicword?Child:Please!Mother:Doyouwantacupoforangejuice?Child:*shakeshead*Notthatone.CanIhaveapplejuice?Stage5:Mother:Didyouhaveagooddayatschooltoday?Child:Yeah,IplayedaeroplaneswithJake.IwanttobeanaeroplanedriverwhenI’molder.Mother:Apilot?Child:Yeahandflytothemoon.Mother:Nothat’sanastronaut.Doyouwanttobeapilotorandastronaut?Child:Iwouldliketobeanastra-,astra-Mother:-naut.ScriptsStage1:Child:Allgone!Holophrasetoexpressafullsentence.Theyareoperatorswhenmanipulatinglanguagethisway.Mother:Yes,themilkisallgone.Child:Mummy,here.Onlyastatementastheydon’thavemuchvocaborlanguageformsthattheycancontrol.Mother:Mummy’shere.Child:Wantmore!Mother:That’senoughmilknow.Child:No,more.Directimperative.Mother:Lookatdolly,she’ssleeping.Child:Dolly,there?Intonationtoaskquestion.Mother:Yes,dollyisinthebed.Child:Dollybye-bye.Stage2:Contraction=passivelyChild:Where'sDaddy?Begintoaskquestionsusuallybeginningwith'where'-interrogativepronoun.Mother:Outside,look?Child:Outsidehot.Abletodescribecharacteristics.Mother:Yesit'ssunny.Child:Wassat?Holophrase.Mother:It'sabook.Child:Bigbook.Abletodescribeconcretenounswithdescriptiveadjectives.Mother:Goodgirl.Stage3:Child:Daddyissleeping?Intonation=passively.'sleeping'-abletouseandunderstandcontinuousaction.Mother:UhuhDaddy'ssleepingonthecouchisn'the?Parentese.Child:Himwakeup!Morecomplexcommandbutwordsmixedup.Mother:Nobecauseheissleeping.Thatwouldn'tbeverynicewouldit?Child:IwantDaddy.Complexwantstructuredcorrectly=Subject+Verb+Object.Stage4:Motherusesmorecomplexsentencesaschildcanunderstandthem.Mother:Whatwouldyoulikeforlunch?Sandwiches?Pasta?Prompting.Child:Please,may,can1haveham?Duplicatemodalverbs.Indirectasreplacesimperativewithquestionaslearningmanners/rulesofgeneralconversation.Mother:Onsandwiches?Child:*nods*Mother:What'sthemagicword?Pragmatic.Child:Please!Mother:Doyouwantacupoforangejuice?Child:*shakeshead*Notthatone.Can1haveapplejuice?Abletousegestures/signals.Negation.Stage5:Mother:Didyouhaveagooddayatschooltoday?Abletogiveinformationabouthis/herday.Knowstimephraseforfuture.Child:Yeah,IplayedaeroplaneswithJake.IwanttobeanaeroplanedriverwhenI'molder.Mother:Apilot?Child:Yeahandflytothemoon.Expressingexactlyandhasknowledgei.e.actuallyknowsaboutthemoon.Mother:Nothat'sanastronaut.Doyouwanttobeapilotorandastronaut?Child:Iwouldliketobeanastra-,astra-Abletouseconditionaltense.Tryingtopronounceasitisadifficultword.Mother:-naut.DevelopmentofGrammarThelearningofgrammarisanunnoticeableprocessandithappensveryquickly.Overthreeorfouryears,childrenmasterthegrammarofthelanguage.Whentheyattendtheirfirstschool,theygivetheimpressionofhavingassimilatedatleast3/4ofallgrammarthereistolearn.StagesofGrammaticalGrowth:Theearlieststageishardlylikegrammaratall,asitconsistsofutterancesofonlyonewordlong,forexample‘dada'or‘hi'.Approximately60%ofthesewordshaveanamingfunctionand20%expressandaction.Mostchildrenofaround12-18monthsgothroughthisstage,knownastheholophrasticstageastheyputtheequivalentofawholesentenceintoasingleword.Thisnextstageismorelikerealgrammarfrom18monthsto2years.Itisknownasthetwo-wordstageasthechildrenput2wordstogethertomakeonesentencestructure.Forexample,'catjump'whichissubject+verb,or'shutdoor'whichisverb+objectBytheendofthisstageweareleftwiththeimpressionthatchildrenhavelearnedseveralbasiclessonsaboutEnglishwordorder.Thisnextstageisfillingsimplesentencepatternsbyaddingextraelementsofclausestructureandmakingtheelementsmorecomplex.3elementsforexample'Daddygotcar'andthen4elements"yougobednow'fshowthisprogress.Orthechildrenstarttoaskquestionslike'whereDaddyputcar?'.Thistakesupmuchofthethirdyearandisknownasthetelegraphicstageassimplewordslikedeterminerse.g.the,areleftoutbutthesentenceisstillunderstood.At3years,sentencesbecomemuchlongerasthechildrenstringclausestogethertoexpressmorecomplexthoughtsandtotellsimplestories.Childrenatthisstagecommonlyuse'and'orotherlinkingwordssuchas"because1f‘so'f'then'etc.At4years,thechildrenare"sortingout'theirgrammar.Forexamplemostchildrenattheageof3%mightsay"himgivedthecheesetothemouses'.Howeverat4%yearstheywouldsay'hegavethecheesetothemice'.Thisexplainsthattheyhavelearnttheformsoftheirregularnoun‘mice'andtheverb'gave',andthepronoun'he'.After4%years,therearestillfeaturesofgrammartobeusedsuchassentence-connectingfeatures.Thisprocesswillcontinueuntilearlyteenswhenthelearningofgrammarbecomesmoreindistinguishable.ActivewithPassiveCrystalcarriedoutanexperimenttestingwhetherchildrenatcertainagesusedactiveorpassivesentences.Hisstudyshowsthatataround3yearsold,noneofthechildrenproducedapassivesentence.Howeverashetestedolderchildrentheywerebeginningtousemorepassivesentences.At7years,theabilitytousepassivesdramaticallyincreased.FoundationYearCrystalbelievesthatlanguageacquisitionisnotjustaboutproducingsounds,butalsoaboutbeingabletoperceivesoundsandunderstandthemeaningofutterancesthatpeoplemake.Hesaysthatbabiesrespondtodifferenttypesofsoundsbybeingabletodistinguishbetweendifferentvoices.Beforethebabiesare1dayoldtheycantellwhichistheirmother'svoicetosomeoneelse'svoice.Aswellascontrastsinintonationandrhythm.Thebabiesalsoshowsignsofcomprehensionbetween2and4months.Theydothisbyrespondingtodifferentadulttonesofvoicesuchasangryorsoothing.Between6and9months,thechildlearnstorecognisedifferentutterancesinsituationsforexample'claphands’or'saybye-bye’.Towardstheendofthefirstyears,thechildrenshowasignofverballearningwhetheritisnamesofpeopleorobjects.Thereforeknowingthemeaningofatleast20wordsbytheendofthefirstyearbeforeevenutteringaword.OverallCrystal'stheorywasthatchildrenlearninamorphousstagesbytrialanderrortosuccessfullylearnthelanguage.Theylearninstagesofgrammar,differenttypesofquestioninge.g.intonationandrecognisingtherhythmsofvoices.JeanAitchisonJeanAitchisonisaRupertMurdochProfessorofLanguageandCommunicationintheFacultyofEnglishLanguageandLiteraturattheUniversityofOxford.Ideathat“languagehasabiologicallyorganizedschedule”.Childreneverywherefollowasimilarpattern.Intheirfirstfewweeks,babiesmostlycry.AsRonaldKnoxoncesaid:'Aloudnoiseatoneend,andnosenseofresponsibilityattheother.’Cryingexercisesthelungsandvocalcords.Butcryingmayoncehavehadafurtherevolutionarypurpose.Yellingbabiesmayhaveremindedparentsthattheiroffspringexist:deafringdovesforgetabouttheirexistingbrood,andgooffandstartanother.In1987,sheidentifiedthreestagesthatoccurduringachild’sacquisitionofvocabulary:labeling,packagingandnetworkbuildin.gLabeling-Thefirststageandinvolvesmakingthelinkbetweenthesoundsofparticularwordsandtheobjectstowhichtheyrefere.g.understandingthat“mummy”referstothechild’smother.Inotherwords,associatinganamewithsomething.Packaging-Thisentailsunderstandingaword’srangeofmeaning.ThisiswhenOverextensionandUnderextensionbecomeahurdleinthedevelopmentofthelanguage.NetworkBuilding-Thisinvolvesgraspingtheconnectionsbetweenwords;understandingthatsomewordsareoppositeinmeaning.AitchisonarguedthattherearenoEXACTdatestowhichachildreachesacertainstageoflearninglanguage-somechildrenlearnfasterthanothers.Shebelievedthatthespeedoflearningisinfluencedbybothinnateabilitiesandenvironment.Languageispartlylearnedbyimitation,soparentsandbrothers/sistersplayaroleintheaccelerationoflearningthelanguage.Babytalkwhilstlearningtospeakcouldhinderthechildinlearningtospeaklateron.Speechtimetablecreatedfrombirthtotenyearsold.Dialogues:1.)AccordingtoAitcheson’sTimetableofSpeech,childrengrasptheuseofsinglewordsatmonth12.M:Mmm!isn’tthatnice?C:More.M:Okay!Herecomestheaeroplane!C:Yeh.2.)Bytheageof2,theunderstandingofwordendingsbeginstoappear.However,it’sabitcomplicatedattimesforthechildtoalwaysgetitright,assomepasttenseverbsrequirenoendinganditisplacedbythechildanyway.Thisisanexampleofthemlearningactively.D:AreyougoingtotellMummywhatyoudidtoday?C:Irodedonahorsie!!.)Duringtheageof2iswhenAi