自整英语语言学

名词解释Chapter1Introduction引言linguistic语言Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.语言学一般被定义为语言的科学研究。generallinguistics一般语言学Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.作为整体而言的语言研究经常被成为一般语言学。phonetics语音学Thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticcommunicationledtotheestablishmentofphonetics.语言交际中语音的研究导致了语音学的建立。morphology形态学Thestudyofthewayinwhichthesesymbolsarearrangedandcombinedtoformwordshasconstitutedthebranchofstudycalledmorphology.对这些符号的排列方式和组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的分支形态学。syntax句法Thestudyofthecombinationofwordstoformgrammaticallypermissiblesentencesinlanguagesiscalledsyntax.句子的组合形式的研究称之为句法。semantics语义学Thestudyofmeaningisknownassemantics.意义的研究被称为语义学。pragmatics语用学Whenthestudyofmeaningisconducted，notinisolation，butinthecontextoflanguageuse，itbecomesanotherbranchoflinguisticstudycalledpragmatics.当意义的研究是进行的，不是孤立的，而是在语言运用的语境中，它就称为语言学的另一个分支，语用学。sociolinguistics社会语言学Thestudiesofallthesocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwithsocietyformthecoreofthebranchcalledsociolinguistics.研究社会各方面的语言和社会形势的关系为核心的分支叫做社会语言学。psycholinguistics心理语言学Psycholinguisticsrelatesthestudyoflanguagetopsychology.心理语言学研究的是语言和心理学。descriptive描写性Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse，itissaidtobedescriptive.如果一个语言研究的目的是为了描述和分析语言的实际上的使用，那么它是描述性的。prescription规定性Ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay，itissaidtobeprescription.如果语言研究的目的是制定规则，告诉人们什么是他们应该说的，什么是不应该说的，那么它是规定性的。synchronic共时性11.compounding复合Likederivation,compoundingisanotherpopularandimportantwayofformingnewwordsinEnglish.Compoundingcanbeviewedasthecombinationoftwoorsometimesmorethantwowordstocreatenewwords.如同衍生，复合是另一种流行的形成新的英语单词的方法，复合可以看做是两个或两个以上的词来创建新的单词。12.Orthographically书写特征Acompoundcanbewrittenasonewordwithorwithoutahypheninbetween,orastwoseparatewords.一个复合词可以写成中间有连字符号，或者分开写。

13.Syntactically句法特征Thepartofspeechofthecompoundisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechofthesecondelement.一个复合词的语音一般由二元部分的语音确定。

14.Semantically句义特征Themeaningofacompoundisoftenidiomatic,notalwaysbeingthesumtotalofthemeaningofitscomponents.一个复合词的意义一般是地道的，都不是其构成成分的意义的总合。

15.phonetically语音特征Thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,whilethesecondelementreceivessecondarystress.复合词的重音往往落在第一个元素。Chapter41.syntax句法Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.句法是语言学的一个分支，研究句子的形成规律。2.SentenceAsentenceisastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatementquestionorcommand.句子是一个结构上独立的单位，通常包含几个单词组成一个完整的语句问题或命令。3.Subject主语Thereferringexpressionisgrammaticallycalledsubject.是指在语法上称为主体。4.Predicate谓语Thepartofasentencewhichcompriseafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsayssomethingaboutthesubjectisgrammaticallycalledpredicate.句子的一部分包含限定动词或动词词组，这被称为谓语。5.Asimplesentence(FiniteClause定式句)consistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.简单句6.Acoordinatesentencecontainstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,suchas“and”,“but”,“or”.Thetwoclausesinacoordinatesentencearestructurallyequalpartsofthesentence;neitherissubordinatetotheother并列句7.Acomplexsentencecontainstwoormoreclauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.Thetwoclausesinacomplexsentencehaveunequalstatus,onesubordinatingtheother.复杂句8.Syntacticmovementandmovementrules句法位移和移位规则

Syntacticmovementoccurswhenaconstituentinasentencemovesoutofitsoriginalplacetoanewposition.Syntacticmovementisdictatedbyrulestraditionallycalledtransformationalrules.当句子中的一个成分从它的移动中移动时，发生了句法运动；句法运动是由规则决定的，传统上称为移动规则。9.transformationrules转换规则Syntacticmovementisgovernedbytransformationalrules.Theoperationofthetransformationalrulesmaychangethesyntacticrepresentationofasentence.句法运动受转换规则的支配，转换规则的操作可能会改变一个句子的句法表达。Chapter51.semantics语义学Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.语义学可以简单定义为语言意义的研究。2.sense意义Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompliersareinterestedin.意义关心的是语言形式的内在意义。它是语言形式所有特征的总和，它是抽象且脱离语境的。它是词典编写者们所感兴趣的语义方面。简单地说，意义是词汇内在的，抽象的，游离于语境之外的意义。3.reference所指Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandnon-linguisticworldofexperience.所指是语言形式在现实世界中所指称的东西；涉及语言成分和非语言的经验世界的关系。简单地说，所指是词汇在特定的语境中所指称的具体事物。□Senseandreferencearetworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.□意义和所指是词汇意义的既相互联系又有所不同的两个方面。4.synonymy同义词Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.同义现象指的是语义的相同或相近。词义相近的词叫同义词。5.polysemy一词多义现象Thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Thisiswhatwecallpolysemy,andsuchawordiscalledapolysemicword.Thefactisthemorecommonlyusedawordis,themorelikelyithasacquiredmorethanonemeaning.同一个单词可能有一个以上的意义，这就是我们所说的一词多义，这样的词叫多义词。一个词越常用，它就越可能获得一个以上的意义。6.antonymy反义关系Thetermantonymyisusedforoppositenessofmeaning,wordsthatareoppositeinmeaningareantonyms.反义关系用以指意义的相反。意义上相反的词叫反义词。7.componentialanalysis成分分析法Componentialanalysisisawaytoanalyzewordmeaning.Itwasproposedbystructuralsemanticists.成分分析法是一种用来分析单词意义的方法，它是由结构语义学家提出的。8.Predicationanalysis述谓结构分析法ItisanapproachproposedbyBritishlinguistG.Leechforsententialmeaninganalysis.述谓结构分析法是一种由英国语言学家GLeech提出的句子意义分析方法。9.predication谓词Insemanticanalysisofasentence,thebasicunitiscalledpredication.Thepredicationistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.

在句子的语义分析中，基本单位称为谓词，谓词是句子意思的抽象。10.thegrammaticalmeaning句法意义Thegrammaticalmeaningofasentencereferstoitsgrammaticality,i.e.itsgrammaticalwell-formedness.Thegrammaticalityofasentenceisgovernedbythegrammaticalrulesofthelanguage.一个句子的句法意义是指它的语法性，即语法合法性。由语法规则。11.semanticmeaning语义Thesemanticmeaningofasentenceisgovernedbyrulescalledselectionalrestrictions.

句子在语义上是否有意义是受被称为选择限制的规则支配的。Chapter61.pragmatics语用学Pragmaticscanbedefinedasthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.语用学可以被定义为对语言使用者如何使用句子进行成功交流的研究。2.context语境，上下文Thenotionofcontextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage.Generallyspeaking,itconsistsoftheknowledgethatissharedbythespeakerandthehearer.语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的。一般来说，它是说话人和听话人的知识共享。3.utterancemeaning话语意义Utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itisrealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.话语基于句子的意思，它是在一个真实的交际环境中，或是在一个词境中的抽象意义的实现。4.locutionarycat言内行为Alocutionaryactistheactofutterancewords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexionandphonology.言内行为是言语行为的词语、短语、句子。它是通过句法表达字面意义的行为、词汇、音韵。5.illocutionaryact言外行为Anillocutionaryactistheactexpressingthespeaker’sintention;Itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.言外行为是表达说话者的意图的行为，是在说话过程中完成的行为。6.perlocutionaryact言后行为Perlocutionaryactreferstotheintendedeffect/happeningofanillocutionaryact.言后行为是指预期的效果,是言外行为的发生。7.principleofconversation会话原则人物：PaulGriceAmerican

philosopher

Paul

Grice

concluded

that

natural

language

had

its

own

logic.

His

idea

is

that

in

making

conversation,

the

participants

must

first

of

all

be

willing

to

cooperate.

This

general

principle

is

called

the

Cooperative

Principle

(CP).

美国哲学家Grice提出的会话原则旨在解释会话意义。他提出自然语言有其独特的逻辑关系。他认为会话的最高原则是合作，称为合作原则。Chapter71.historicallinguistics历史语言学Historicallinguisticsisthesubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudieslanguagechange.历史语言学是研究语言变化的一个分支。2.clippedwords缩略词（burger—hamburger）Clippedwordsarecreatedbydroppingoneormoresyllablesfromapolysyllabicword;缩略词通常指一个多音节的词扔掉一个或几个音节，然后变成的词语。3.coinage创新词（KodakXerox）A

new

word

can

be

coined

to

fit

some

purpose.一个新词可以为了一些目的被创造出来。4.blending紧缩法（motel=motor+hotel）Ablendisawordformedbycombiningpartsofotherwords..紧缩法的词是由其它词的部分组成的。5.acronyms词首字母缩略词（CEO=ChiefExecutiveOfficer）Acronymsarewordsderivedfromtheinitialsofseveralwords.词首字母缩略词是来自几个单词的缩写词。6.back-formation逆构词法（todonate—derivedfromdonation）New

words

may

be

coined

from

already

existing

words

by

subtracting

an

affix

mistakenly

thought

to

be

part

of

the

old

word.

Such

words

are

called

back-formation.从已经存在的词减去一个词缀形成一个新的词称为逆构词法。7.functionalshift功能性变化（noun→verbtobrake）Words

may

shift

from

one

part

of

speech

to

another

without

the

addition

of

affixes，whichisalsocalledconversion.语言没有词缀的添加可以从谈话的一部分转移到另一部分，也就是所谓的转移。8.borrowing借用（tea，guitar，prince，balloon，alcohol）When

different

culture

come

into

contact,

words

are

often

borrowed

from

one

language

to

another.

It

is

also

called

load

words.当不同的文化相接触，词经常从一门语言借到另一门语言，这也被称为借词、外来词。9.languagechange语言变化Language

change

is

essentially

a

matter

of

change

in

the

grammar.

We

refer

to

the

change

in

the

grammar

of

a

language

as

linguistic

change.

Linguistic

change

occurs

in

all

components

of

the

grammar,

including

changes

in

the

sound,

morphological,

syntactic,

lexical

and

semantic

systems.

语言变化实质上是语法变化。我们把一种语言的语法变化称为语言变化。语言变化包括语音系统、形态系统、句法系统、词汇系统和语义系统等部分的变化。Chapter81.sociolinguistics社会语言学Sociolinguisticsisthesub-disciplineoflinguisticsthatstudieslanguageinsocialcontext.社会语言学是语言学的一个分支，它研究社会环境中的语言。2.speechcommunity言语社区A

speech

community

thus

defined

as

a

group

of

people

who

form

a

community

(which

may

have

as

few

members

as

a

family

or

as

many

member

as

a

country),

and

share

the

same

language

or

a

particular

variety

of

language.

言语社区被定义为一个社区（人数小到一个家庭，大到一个国家）使用同样的语言或语言的某种变体的一群人。3.speechvariety言语变体speech

variety

is

sometimes

used

instead

of

standard

language,

vernacular

language,

dialect,

pidgin,

creole,

etc.

Speech

variation

moves

on

a

scale

of

the

national

language,

dialect,

and

individual

ways

of

communication.

语变体可以指一种不同的语言，如标准语、方言、洋泾浜等，可以指同一语言的地域性或民族性变体，如英语中的澳大利亚英语、黑人英语等，也可以指同属一种语言的功能性言语变体，如法律语体、正式语体等。4.regional

variation

地域变异Regional

variation

is

speech

variation

according

to

the

particular

area

where

a

speaker

comes

from.Regional

variation

of

language

is

the

most

discernible

and

definable.

语言的地域变异产生了地区方言。语言往往随着使用地理位置的变化而变化。地域变异是语言最易辨别的特征。5.social

variation

社会变异Social

variation

gives

rise

to

sociolects

which

are

subdivisible

into

smaller

speech

categories

which

reflect

their

socioeconomic,

educational,

occupational

and

ethnic

background,

as

well

as

their

sex

and

age.

语言的社会变异产生了社会方言。社会方言又可以分为更小的语言类别。导致语言社会变异的主要因素包括语言使用者的不同的社会地位、经济地位、学历、职业、年龄、性别等。6.stylistic

variation

文体变异There

are

differences

associated

with

the

speech

situation:

who

is

speaking

to

whom

about

under

what

circumstances

for

what

purpose.

有一些差异是说话者本人的言语在不同的言语情景中所具有的差异：言语情景即在什么情况下，为了什么目的，谁与谁讲什么。7.idiolectal

variation

个人言语变异When

an

individual

speaks,

what

is

actually

produced

is

a

unique

language

system

of

the

speaker,

expressed

within

the

overall

system

of

a

particular

language.

Such

a

personal

dialect

is

referred

to

as

idiolect.

一个人在说话时，他在一种特定语言的总的体系内表达，但他实际上所说出的是他自己的独特的语言体系。这种个人方言被称为个人习语。8.register

语域Registers

are

language

varieties

appropriate

for

use

in

particular

speech

situations,

for

that

reason,

registers

are

also

known

as

situational

dialects.

语域是在特定的言语情景中使用的语言变体，因此，语域也称为语域方言。9.languageplanning语言规划Onewayoutofthecommunicationdilemmaislanguagestandardizationknownaslanguageplanning.Thismeansthatcertainauthorities,suchasthegovernmentorgovernmentagencyofacountry,chooseaparticularspeechvarietyandspreadtheuseofit,includingitspronunciationandspellingsystem,acrossregionalboundaries.交际困境的出路之一就是语言规范化，也就是语言规划。这就意味着，某些机关，比如政府或政府机构，选择一个特定的语音种类，并使用它，包括其发音和拼写，跨越地域界限。10.idiolect个人习语Suchapersonaldialectisreferedtoasidiolect.个人方言被称为个人习语。11.standardlanguage标准语Thestandardlanguageisasuperposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectoflanguage.Itisthelanguageemployedbythegovernmentandthejudiciarysystem,usedbythemassmedia.标准语是一种方言的重叠，它是由政府和司法机构、大众媒体使用的语言。12.nonstandardlanguage非标准语言Languagevarietiesotherthanthestandardarecallednonstandard,orvernacular,languages.除了标准语以外的语言变体被称为非标准的或者是白话的语言。13.linguafranca通用语Alinguafrancaisavarietyoflanguagethatservesasamediumofcommunicationamonggroupsofpeoplefordiverselinguisticbackgrounds.通用语是一种在不同语言背景的人群中作为交际媒介的语言。14.pidgin皮钦语Apidginisavarietyoflanguagethatisgenerallyusedbynativespeakersofotherlanguagesasamediumofcommunication.皮钦语是语言的一种变体，通常被以其他语言为母语的人作为一种交流的媒介。Creole混合语ACreolelanguageisoriginallyapidginthathasbecomeestablishedasanativelanguageinsomespeechcommunication.混合语本来是一种皮钦语，现在已经成为一种交际语言。diglossia

双言现象Diglossiausuallydescribesasituationinwhichtwoverydifferentvarietiesoflanguageco-existinaspeechcommunication,eachwithadistinctrangeofpurelysocialfunctionandappropriateforcertainsituations.双言现象通常描述一种语言非常不同的两个品种共存的情况，在言语交际中，每一个有着不同的纯社会功能和适当的某些情况。18.bilingualism

双语现象Bilingualism

refers

to

a

linguistic

situation

in

which

two

standard

languages

are

used

either

by

an

individual

or

by

a

group

of

speakers.双语现象指个人或社区群体可以同时使用两种标准语言的现象。19.ethicdialect民族方言Anethniclanguagevarietyisasocialdialectofalanguage,oftencuttingacrossregionaldifferences民族语言是一种社会方言，它经常跨越地域差异。20.socialdialect社会方言Socialdialect,orsociolects,arevarietiesoflanguageusedbypeoplebelongingtoparticularsocialclasses.社会方言是一种属于特定的社会阶层的人所使用的语言种类。21.slang俚语Slangisacausaluseoflanguagethatconsistsofexpressivebutnonstandardvocabulary,typicallyofarbitrary,flashyandoftenephemeralcoinageandfigureofspeechcharacterizedbyspontaneityandsometimesbyraciness.俚语是一种语言，包括传神但不标准的语言，通常任意使用，华而不实。22.taboowords禁忌词Alinguistictabooreferstoawordorexpressionthatisprohibitedbythe“polite”societyfromgeneraluse.Alinguistictabooreferstoawordorexpressionthatisprohibitedbythe“polite”societyfromgeneraluse.语言禁忌是指“有礼貌”的社会所禁止的一个词或一个表达方式。23.euphemism委婉语EuphemismcomesfromtheGreekwordeuphemismos,meaning“tospeakwithgoodwords”.Aeuphemism,then,ismild,indirectorlessoffensivewordorexpressionsubstitutewhenthespeakerorwriterfearsmoredirectwordingmightbeharsh,unpleasantlydirect,oroffensive.委婉语来自希腊语，意思是“说好听的话”，一个委婉的说法是温和的、间接的。Chapter91.psycholinguistics心理语言学Psycholinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinrelationtothemind.Asthesuggests,psycholinguisticsisviewedastheintersectionofpsychologyandlinguistics,drawingequallyuponthelanguageweacquire,produceandcomprehend.心理语言学是一种语言与思维的关系的研究。作为建议，心理语言学是心理学和语言学的交叉口，我们获得、产生和理解语言。1.culture文化Culture，inabroadsense，meansintegratedpatternofhumanknowledge，belief，andbehaviorthatisbotharesultofandintegraltothehumancapacityforlearningandtransmittingknowledgetosucceedinggenerations.文化，从广义上说，是指人类的知识、信仰和行为的综合模式，是人类学习和传播知识的人类能力的结果和整体。2.linguistic

relativity语言相关性A

belief

that

the

way

people

view

the

world

is

determined

wholly

or

partly

by

the

structure

of

their

native

language.人类认识世界完全或部分是通过他们的本土语言的结构确定的。3.acculturation同化过程Acculturationistheprocessofchanginginmaterialculture，traditionalpractices，andbeliefsthatoccurswhenonegroup’sculturesysteminterfereswiththatofanother，directlyorindirectlychallengingthelattertoadapttothewaysoftheformer.同化过程是物质文化变迁的过程，是当一个群体的文化系统干扰另一个群体的文化系统时传统的做法和信念，直接或间接地挑战后者以适应前者的方式。4.assimilation同化Assimilationistheprocesswherebyindividualsorgroupsofdifferingethnicityareabsorbedintothedominantcultureofasociety—thoughnotalwayscompletely.同化是指个体或群体不同种族的过程被吸收到社会的主流文化中的过程——尽管并非总是完全的。5.amalgamation文化融合Amalgamationoccurswhenasocietybecomesethnicallymixedinawaythatrepresentsasynthesisratherthantheeliminationorabsorptionofonegroupbyanother.融合发生在一个社会成为的一种方式，是一个综合而不是另一个或一组吸收消除种族混合。6.linguisticimperialism语言学中的帝国主义Linguisticimperialismisakindoflinguicismwhichcanbedefinedasthepromulgationofglobalideologiesthroughtheworldwideexpansionofonelanguage.语言帝国主义是一种“语言歧视，可以定义为全球意识形态的传播通过一种语言的全球扩张。Chapter101.languageacquisition语言习得Languageacquisitionisconcernedwithlanguagedevelopmentinhumans.Ingeneral,languageacquisitionreferstochildren’sdevelopmentoftheirfirstlanguage,thatis,thenativelanguageofthecommunityinwhichachildhasbeenbroughtup.语言习得与人类语言发展有关。一般说来，语言习得是指儿童的第一语言的发展，即儿童所产生的社会的母语。2.languageacquisitiondevice（LAD）语言习得机制A

hypothetical

innate

mechanism

every

normal

human

child

is

believed

to

be

born

with,

which

allow

them

to

acquire

language.一个假设每个正常的孩子出生起就被允许得到语言的机制。3.motherese保姆式语言（childdirectedspeech=CDS）

A

special

speech

to

children

used

by

adults,

which

is

characterized

with

slow

rate

of

speed,

high

pitch,

rich

intonation,

shorter

and

simpler

sentence

structures

etc一种成人对孩子的特殊语言，特点是语速慢，间隔时间长，语调丰富，短和句子结构简单。4.under-extension

Use

a

word

with

less

than

its

usual

range

of

denotation.用一个比它寻常外延范围少的词。5.over-extensionExtension

of

the

meaning

of

a

word

beyond

its

usual

domain

of

application

by

young

children.对超越领域的儿童所应用的词义延伸。6.telegraphicspeech电报式言语Theearlymultiwordutteranceofchildrenhaveaspecialcharacteristic.Theytypicallylackinflectionalmorphemesandmostminorlexicalcategories.Becauseoftheirresemblancetothestylyoflanguagefoundintelegrams,utteranceatthisacquisitionstageareoftencalledtelegraphicspeech.儿童早期的说话方式有一种特殊的特征，大多缺乏曲折语素和大多数未成年人的词汇范畴，因为他们和电报有相似的风格，这个习得阶段的话语通常被称为电报式言语。7.contentwords实词Contentwordsprovidelistenerswithsomeinformation.实词为听者提供一些信息。8.holophrasticsentence单词语句Children'sone-wordutterancesarealsocalledholophrasticsentences,becausetheycanbeusedtoexpressaconceptorpredicationthatwouldbeassociatedwithanentiresentenceinadultspeech.儿童发出的一个词也可以被称为单词语句，因为它们能够表达概念或论断，起到成人语言中一句话的作用。Chapter111.secondlanguageacquisition（SLA）第二语言习得It

refers

to

the

systematic

study

of

how

one

person

acquires

a

second

language

subsequent

to

his

native

language.它指的是对在一个人习得他的母语之后如何获得第二语言的系统研究。2.secondlanguage第二语言A

second

language

is

a

language

which

is

not

a

native

language

in

a

country

but

which

is

widely

used

as

a

medium

of

communication

and

which

is

usually

used

alongside

another

language

or

languages.第二语言是指一门不是母语但是在这个国家内被广泛使用的语言。3.foreignlanguage外国语A

foreign

language

is

a

language

which

is

taught

as

a

school

subject

but

which

is

not

used

as

a

medium

of

instruction

in

schools

nor

as

a

language

of

communication

within

a

country.外国语是指作为一门学校的课程学习但是并不被广泛使用的语言。4.acquisition习得Acquisition

refers

to

the

gradual

and

subconscious

development

of

ability

in

the

first

language

by

using

it

naturally

in

daily

communicative

situations.

习得指的是日常交际环境中通过自然的运用第一语言能力而逐步地、下意识地发展这种能力。5.learning学习Learning,

however,

is

defined

as

a

conscious

process

of

accumulating

knowledge

of

a

second

language

usually

obtained

in

school

settings.

学习则被定义为在学校环境中有意识地积累第二语言知识的过程。6.transfer转移Naturally,

learners

will

subconsciously

use

their

L1

knowledge

in

learning

a

second

language.

This

is

known

as

language

transfer.

学习者在学第二语言的过程中总是下意识地运用第一语言的知识，这种现象叫做语言转移。7.positivetransfer积极迁移（正迁移）Positive

transfer

occurs

when

an

L1

pattern

is

identical

with,

or

similar

to,

a

target

language

pattern.如果第一语言和目的语的模式相同或相似时，就很可能出现积极迁移。8.negativetransfer消极迁移（负迁移）Negative

transfer

occurs

when

an

L1

pattern

is

different

from

the

counterpart

pattern

of

the

target

language.

Negative

transfer

is

a

process

more

commonly

known

as

interference.如果第一语言的模式和目的语中相应的模式不同时出现的就是负向转移，即人们常说的干扰。9.ContrastiveAnalysis对比分析法TheContrastiveAnalysisapproachwasfoundedonthebeliefthat,byestablishingthelinguisticdifferencesbetweenthenativeandtargetlanguagesystem,itwaspossibletopredictwhatproblemslearnersofaparticularsecondlanguagewouldfaceandthetypesoferrorstheywouldmake.对比分析的方法是建立在这样的信念，通过建立母语和目标语言系统之间的语言差异，它是可以预测的问题，学习者的一个特定的二语将面对和他们会犯错误的类型。10.interlanguage中介语（人物：Selinker）Interlanguageisdefinedasanabstractsystemoflearners’targetlanguagesystemandithasnowbeenwidelyusedtorefertothelinguisticexpressionslearnersproduce，especiallythewrongornotidiomaticonesorlearnerlanguage.中介语指的是学习者的目的语系统的一个抽象的系统现在已经被广泛用来指语言学习者产生，尤其是错误的或不地道的人或学习语言。11.fossilization语言石化现象Fossilizationhasbecomeoneofthemainfeaturesofinterlanguage.语言僵硬现象已经成为中介语的主要特征之一。12.overgeneralization概括过头Overgeneralizationisdefinedastheuseofpreviouslyavailablestrategiesinnewsituation.概括过头是指在新形势下使用以前可用的策略。13.interference干扰Theyfoundthedifferencesorsimilaritiesbetweennativeandtargetlanguageswouldeitherleadtopositivetransferornegativetransfer，alsoknownasinterference.他们发现母语和目标语言之间的差异或相似会导致积极的转移或负迁移，也被称为干扰。14.erroranalysis错误分析Thestudyandanalysisoferrorsmadebysecondandforeignlanguagelearnersinordertoidentifycausesoferrorsorcommondifficultiesinlanguagelearning..外语学习者错误的研究与分析，以找出语言学习中的错误或共同的困难。15.interlingualerror语际错误，受母语影响的错误Errors,whichmainlyresultfromcross-linguisticinterferenceatdifferentlevelssuchasphonological,lexical,grammaticaletc.错误，主要是由于从不同的层次，如语音，词汇，语法等跨语言干扰。16.intralingualerror语内错误Errors,whichmainlyresultfromfaultyorpartiallearningofthetargetlanguage,independentofthenativelanguage.Thetypicalexamplesareovergeneralizationandcross-association.错误，主要是由于错误或部分学习的目标语言，独立的母语。典型的例子是概括过头和互相联想。17.cross-association互相联想Somewordsaresimilarinmeaningaswellasspellingandpronunciation.Thisinternalinterferenceiscalledcross-association.有些单词在意思上和拼写和发音上有着相似的意思。这种内部干扰称为互相联想。error错误Theproductionofincorrectformsinspeechorwritingbyanon-nativespeakerofasecondlanguage,duetohisincompleteknowledgeoftherulesofthattargetlanguage.由于他对这一目标语言规则的不完全了解，不正确的语言或非英语母语的人写的不正确的形式。19.mistake错误Mistakes,definedaseitherintentionallyorunintentionallydeviantformsandself-corrigible,suggestfailureinperformance.错误，定义为有意或无意的变异形式和自我改正的，表明故障性能。20.input输入languagewhichalearnerhearsorreceivesandfromwhichheorshecanlearn.学习者听到或接收到的语言，或是他或她可以学习的语言。21.intake纳入Theinputwhichisactuallyhelpfulforthelearner.对学习者有帮助的输入。22.InputHypothesis输入假说（人物：Krashen）AhypothesisproposedbyKrashen,whichstatesthatinsecondlanguagelearning,it’snecessaryforthelearnertounderstandinputlanguagewhichcontainslinguisticitemsthatareslightlybeyondthelearner’spresentlinguisticcompetence.Eventuallytheabilitytoproducelanguageissaidtoemergenaturallywithoutbeingtaughtdirectly.Krashen提出的一个假设，即在第二语言学习中，对学习者理解输入的语言项目是稍微超出学习者的语言能力是必要的。最终，产生语言的能力是说出来的，而不被直接教。23.acquisition习得Acquisitionisaprocesssimilartothewaychildrenacquiretheirfirstlanguage.Itisasubconsciousprocesswithoutminutelearningofgrammaticalrules.Learnersarehardlyawareoftheirlearningbuttheyareusinglanguagetocommunicate.Itisalsocalledimplicitlearning,informallearningornaturallearning.习得是一个过程，类似于儿童获得他们的第一语言。这是一个潜意识的过程，没有一分钟学习的语法规则。学习者不知道自己的学习，但他们使用的语言来交流。它也被称为内隐学习、非正式学习或自然学习。24.learning学习learningisaconsciouslearningofsecondlanguageknowledgebylearningtherulesandtalkingabouttherules.学习是通过学习规则和谈论规则的知识学习的二语知识。25.comprehensibleinput可理解的语言输入Inputlanguagewhichcontainslinguisticitemsthatareslightlybeyondthelearner’spresentlinguisticcompetence.输入语包含了略高于学习者语言能力的语言条目。26.languageaptitude语言能力（倾向）Thenaturalabilitytolearnalanguage,notincludingintelligence,motivation,interest,etc.学习语言的自然能力，不包括智力、动机、兴趣等。27.motivation动机Motivationisdefinedasthelearner’sattitudesandaffectivestateorlearningdrive.动机被定义为学习者的态度和情感状态或学习驱动。28.instrumentalmotivation工具性动机Themotivationthatpeoplelearnaforeignlanguageforinstrumentalgoalssuchaspassingexams,orfurtheringacareeretc.人们学习外语的动机，如通过考试，或促进事业等。29.integrativemotivation融合型动机Thedrivethatpeoplelearnaforeignlanguagebecauseofthewishtoidentifywiththetargetculture.人们学习外语的目的是为了与目标文化的认同。30.resultativemotivation结果型动机Thedrivethatlearnerslearnasecondlanguageforexternalpurposes.激励学习者学习第二语言的外在目的。31.intrinsicmotivation内在动机Thedrivethatlearnerslearnthesecondlanguageforenjoymentorpleasurefromlearning.学习者学习语言的乐趣和学习的乐趣。32.learningstrategies学习策略Learningstrategiesarelearners’consciousgoal-orientedandproblem-solvingbasedeffortstoachievelearningefficiency.学习策略是学习者自觉的目标导向和解决问题的努力，以实现学习效率。33.cognitivestrategies认知策略Strategiesinvolvedinanalyzing,synthesis,andinternalizingwhathasbeenlearned.参与分析、综合的策略，并内化所学。34.metacognitivestrategies元认知策略Thetechniquesinplanning,monitoringandevaluatingone’slearning.计划，监督和评估一个人的学习的技术。35.affect/socialstrategies影响/社会策略Thestrategiesdealingwiththewayslearnersinteractorcommunicatewithotherspeakers,nativeornon-native.学习者与其他人、本地人或非本地人进行互动或交流的策略。Chapter121.neurolinguistics神经语言学Itisthestudyofrelationshipbetweenbrainandlanguage.Itincludesresearchintohowthestructureofthebraininfluenceslanguagelearning,howandinwhichpartsofthebrainlanguageisstored,andhowdamagetothebrainaffectstheabilitytouselanguage.这是研究大脑与语言的关系。它包括研究大脑的结构如何影响语言学习，如何以及大脑语言的部分被存储，以及对大脑的损害如何影响使用语言的能力。2.psycholinguistics心理语言学Thestudyoflanguageprocessing.Itisconcernedwiththeprocessesoflanguageacqisition,comprehensionandproduction.对语言处理的研究。这是关于语言习得的过程，理解和生成。3.brainlateralization大脑侧化Thelocalizationofcognitiveandperceptivefunctionsinaparticularhemisphereofthebrain.大脑半球特定半球的认知和感知功能的定位。4.dichoticlistening双耳分听Atechniqueinwhichstimulieitherlinguisticornon-linguisticarepresentedthroughheadphonestotheleftandrighteartodeterminethelateralizationofcognitivefunction.在这一技术刺激的语言或非语言是通过耳机的左右耳确定认知功能偏侧化。5.rightearadvantage右耳优势Thephenomenonthattherightearshowsanadvantagefortheperceptionoflinguisticsignalsidknownastherightearadvantage.右耳优势显示了一个右耳的语言信号的感知被称为是右耳优势。6.splitbrainstudies裂脑研究Theexperimentsthatinvestigatetheeffectsofsurgicallyseveringthecorpuscallosumoncognitionarecalledassplitbrainstudies.探讨手术切断胼胝体对认知的作用的实验被称为裂脑研究。7.aphasia失语症Itreferstoanumberofacquiredlanguagedisordersduetothecerebrallesionscausedbyatumor,anaccidentandsoon.它是指由于肿瘤、交通事故等导致的脑损伤而引起的一些语言障碍。8.non-fluentaphasia非流利失语症Damagetopartsofthebraininfrontofthecentralsulcusiscallednon-fluentaphasia.在中央前沟部分的脑损伤被称为非流利性失语。9.fluentaphasia流利性失语症Damagetopartsoftheleftcortexbehindthecentralsulcusresultsinatypeofaphasiacal