世界银行-处理社会和性别规范以促进两性平等（英）

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WORLDBANKGROUPGENDERTHEMATICPOLICYNOTESSERIES:EVIDENCEANDPRACTICENOTE

ADDRESSINGSOCIALANDGENDERNORMSTOPROMOTEGENDEREQUALITY

ANAMARÍAMUÑOZBOUDET,TASMIARAHMAN,NOURNASRANDABIGAILDALTON

OVERVIEW

Socialnormsarecontext-specificinformalrulesaboutacceptableorappropriatebehaviorsinagivencontext.Whensocialnormsreinforceexpectationsthatmenandwomenwilloccupydistinctandunequalsocialroles,theyreproduceandperpetuategenderinequalityinaccesstoresourcesandopportunities.

Challengingunequalsocialnormsiscriticaltoachievinggenderequalityacrossdomains,includingmoregenderequalmarkets,institutions,laws,policies,households,andsocieties.Unequalsocialnormscanbechangedviapolicyinterventionssupportedbyamoreinformed,data-drivenapproachtosocialnorms—notjustattitudes.Buildingonongoingeffortsandlessonsfromvariousdiagnostics,theWorldBankcanfurtherinvestinbetterqualitysocialnormsmeasurementanddatacollectiontoolstomonitorsustainednormativechanges.Operationalworkandprojectscanincreaseeffectivenesswithbetterdiagnosticsanduseofsocialnormsinformation.

ExamplesfromtheWorldBankandacademicresearchofinterventionsthathaveaimedtoaddressunequalsocialnormsshowpromiseforchange;however,longer-termmeasuresofthesustainabilityoftheirimpactsareneeded.Whilethereisagrowingsetofexamplesofinterventionsthataimtochangesocialnorms—byaddressingattitudesorchangingthecontextsthatsupportnormsadherence—gapsremain.Normchanginginterventionsarenotbeingimplementedatscaleandmoreeffortneedstobemadetoassessthedurationofimpactsandwhethermoreequitablenormsprevailovertime.Lessonsfromrecentsocietalshocksindicatethatnormscanre-entrench,andattitudescanchangedependingonchangesincontext.

Policyinterventionsneedtobenorms-awareandusetoolstosupportadoptionofmoreequalgendernormswhenappropriate.Allpolicyinterventions,notonlythosetargetinggenderinequality,shouldconsidernormsintheirdesignandimplementationandwhethertheywillplayaroleinpotentialgenderdifferencesinaccesstoandbenefitsfromthespecificpolicyactions.Norms-awareinterventionsincludeanassessmentofsocialnormsenforcementmechanismsandhowthesecanbeovercome.Afailuretoconsidernormsisnotnormsneutrality,butnormsblindness.Norms-blindpoliciescanbeinefficient,maynotachievetheirintendedoutcomes,andcaninadvertentlyreinforcegenderinequality.Norms-awareinterventionshaveaclearunderstandingofthesocialnormsatplayandthemainactorsandchannelsenforcingthem.Assuch,theseinterventionscreatetheconditionsthatenableindividuals,households,andcommunitiestodeviateorcircumventunequalnormsatnoorlowcost.

JULY2023

TABLEOFCONTENTS

OVERVIEW

INTRODUCTION:WHYGENDERNORMSMATTERFORGENDEREQUALITY1

UNDERSTANDINGSOCIALNORMS3

Definitions:Whatdowemeanbynorms3

Measuringsocialnorms5

CHANGINGSOCIALNORMS:IDENTIFYINGAND10

ADDRESSINGMECHANISMSTHATSUSTAINTHEM

Phase1:Limitedacceptanceofamoregenderegalitariannorm11

Phase2:Normtippingpoint12

Phase3:Widespreadacceptanceofthegenderegalitarianbehavior14

PreventingNormsreversals15

CHANGINGSOCIALNORMS:EXAMPLESFROMSUCCESSFULINTERVENTIONS16

CONCLUSIONANDRECOMMENDATIONS21

REFERENCES24

ThenotehasbenefitedfrominputsandfeedbackbyHelleBuchhave,RachaelPierotti,LauraRawlings,MiraiMaruo,ShabnamHameed,MegMcClure,VarunGauri,JuanBaron,andNikolasMyint.

Thisthematicpolicynoteispartofa

series

thatprovidesananalyticalfoundationfortheupdatetotheWorldBankGroupGenderStrategy(2024-2030).Thisseriesseekstogiveabroadoverviewofthelatestresearchandfindingsongenderequalityoutcomesandsummarizeskeythematicissues,evidenceonpromisingsolutions,operationalgoodpractices,andkeyareasforfutureengagementonpromotinggenderequalityandempowerment.Thefindings,interpretations,andconclusionsexpressedinthisworkareentirelythose

oftheauthor(s).TheydonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsoftheWorldBankGrouporitsBoardofDirectors.ThisnotehasbeenpreparedbyAnaMaríaMuñozBoudet,TasmiaRahman,NourNasr,andAbigailDalton.

II

INTRODUCTION:WHYGENDERNORMSMATTER

FORGENDEREQUALITY

Socialnorms,ortheunwrittensharedexpectationsaboutwhatshouldorshouldnotbedoneindifferentsocialsituations,arepartofthemanysocialcuesthatguidehumanbehaviorwithinagivensocialcontext.(CislaghiandHeise2020;Bicchieri,2006).Socialnormsareatoolforcollectivecoordinationandpartofthefabricofsociety.Peoplefollownormswhentheyvaluethebehaviorandopinionofotherswhoalsofollowthenormsandbelieveeveryoneshouldfollowthemtoo,astherearerewardsandsanctionsforfollowing(ornot)thenorms(Bicchieri2017).

Gendernormsarethesocialrulesandexpectationsabouthowwomenandmenshouldactandtherolestheyshouldplayinsociety.Gendernormsreflectgenderrelations,includingthepowerdifferencesandinequalitiesthatarepartoftheserelations.Asubgroupofgendernormssupportsinequalityandisdisadvantageoustowomenorindividualsthatdonotconformwiththeexpectedgenderbehaviors.1Normsthatareusedtojustifyorlimitaccesstoopportunitiesonthebasisofanindividual’sgenderarethefocusofthisnote.

Theimpactofsocialnormsongenderoutcomesiswelldocumented.Socialnormsareoneofthemaindeterminantsofunequalgenderoutcomesacrossdomains,includingwomen’seconomicparticipation,gender-basedviolence(GBV),sexualandreproductivehealth,andrepresentationinpoliticalbodies(Jayachandran,2021;PaluckandBall,2010;Aminetal.,2018;WorldBank2012).Astheyshapeindividualandcollectivepreferencesandbehaviors,socialnormspermeateformalinstitutions,policies,theoperationofmarkets,legalframeworks,andoverallallocationsofresourcesandpowerinsocieties,

communities,andhouseholds.Forexample,inatraditionalviewofgenderroles,houseandcareworkareallocatedtowomen,andmaybeassociatedwithaspecificidentity(i.e.,motherorwife).Thisisthenlinkedtoaseriesofsocialexpectations—suchas,a“goodmother”looksafterherchildren—andaseriesofpositiveornegativesanctions,includinggossiporspousaldisapproval.

Theseexpectationsandrelatedchoicesnotonlypermeatewhatisacceptablebehavior,butalsoinfluencepoliciesandinstitutions.Labormarketsandemployers,inparticular,mightvaluemenandwomendifferently,eveniftheyareequallymatchedineducationandexperience.Evenemployerswhoaretheoreticallyneutraltowardgenderinhiringmayassumeproductivitywilldifferbygenderduetocareresponsibilitiesandfactorsassociatedwithgender,thuslimitingopportunitiesforwomen.2Formalstateinstitutionsmightrespondtothenormthatimpliesmothersshouldhaveapreferenceforcaregivingbynotinvestinginchildcareservices.Deprioritizinginvestmentsinformalchildcareservicescanleadtolowdemandofsuchservicesandhamperthedevelopmentofachildcaremarket,reinforcingthesocialexpectation.Legislationmightrespondtotheseassumedfemalepreferencesbyfocusingallchildcare-relatedbenefitsjusttowardwomen(e.g.,maternityleave,employer-providedchildcare),which,inturn,reinforcesthelabormarketperspectivethatwomenprioritizecare.Together,thesesignalsindicatetowomenandhouseholdstheexpectedbehaviorsofwomen.Moreover,thesesocialnormscanfurtherimpactregulationsthatreinforcepowerinequalityinthehouseholdaswomenarenotincomeproviders.3

1Forindividualswithdifferentsexualorientationsorgenderidentities(SOGI),socialnormsrelatedtogendertendtobeappliedinrelationtotheirbiologicaland/orobservedsexualcharacteristics.Theseindividualsareoftenseenasnormstransgressors,deviatingfromtheexpectedbehaviors,andassuch,threateningthesocietalexpectationsandbalancethatnormspresent.WhilethisnotedoesnotdelveintothespecificsofsocialnormsrelatedtoSOGIgroups,thereareseveralresources,suchasBrowne(2019);SchiltandWestbrook(2009);andWestbrookandSchilt(2014).Alsoseethethematicpolicynoteinthis

series

onSOGIInclusionandGenderEquality.

2Taste-basedorstatisticaldiscrimination(Arrow1998).

3Forexample,inEcuadororChile,husbandshadtherighttomanagesolelycommunityproperty.TheEcuadorCivilCodewasreformedin1990,butinChile,theCivilCodecontinuestoupholdthehusbandastheheadofthehouseholdandmanagerofthecommunityproperty.

1

UNDERSTANDINGSOCIALNORMS

Definitions:Whatdowemeanbynorms

Socialnormscanbedefinedasasetofinformalrulesofbehaviorthatdictatewhatisacceptableorappropriatetodoinagivensituationwithinagivensocialcontext(CislaghiandHeise2020;Bicchieri2006).Whiletherearemanydefinitionsofsocialnorms(seeBox1fortheonesusedindifferentWorldBankreports),theyallsharethefollowingelements:thatsocialnormsarerulesthatpeoplefollowirrespectiveofwhatothersdobecause1)theybelieveothersarefollowingthenorm,2)theybelievetheyareexpectedtofollowthenorm,and3)theybelievetherearesocialsanctionsfornotfollowingthesocialnorm.6Peoplefollownormswhentheybelieveothers,whosebehaviortheyobserveandwhoseopinionsabouttheirownbehaviortheyvalue,bothconformtothenormandbelieveeveryoneshouldtoo(Bicchieri2017).Gendernormsoperatethesameway,butinrelationtowomen’sormen’sbehaviors.

Socialnormsaredistinctfromotherdriversofbehaviors—laws,morals,customs,orindividualattitudes—becausepeoplecomplywithnormsbasedonanticipatedsocialsanctionsfornonconformity.Socialnormsareupheldbyinformalsocialsanctions,makingthemdifferentfromlegalnorms,whicharewritten,formalcodesofconductenforcedbypunishments,orpenaltiesfornon-compliers.Socialnormsarealsodifferentfrommoralnorms,whicharemoreinternallydriven,value-basedmotivatorsofbehaviorthatpushindividualstobehaveincompliancewiththeirownidealstatesforselfandtheworldratherthanthoseofothers

(i.e.,whatitmeanstobea“goodperson”).Attitudes,oneofthemostcommonlyusedmeasuresofsocialnorms,reflectpersonalbeliefsandvaluesthatindividualsmightupholdevenintheabsenceofasocialsanctionorexpectation.Socialnormsarealsodifferentfromcustoms,whichtendtoberecurrentbehaviorsarisingfromrepetitiontofostersocialharmonyortomeetindividualneed(inmostcases,withoutadditionalinstrumentalvalue)ratherthanbeingreinforcedbysanctionswithsocialconsequences(e.g.,holdingadooropenforsomeone).

Socialnorms,inparticulargendernorms,arealsooftenconflatedwithgenderstereotypesandgenderroles,thatinsome,butnotallcases,arerelatedtosocialnorms.Stereotypesaregeneralizedassumptionsofcharacteristicsregardingagroupofpeople(Kite,DeauxandHaines,2008).Stereotypesdescribeacharacteristicandlikenorms,theycreateconformity.Theydothisnotbyimposingsanctions,butviadiscriminationandinfluenceonself-beliefsaboutavailableandappropriateopportunities.Forexample,astereotypethatclaimswomenarebadatpoliticscanperpetuatepreferencesformenpoliticalcandidates,irrespectiveoftheirabilityorexperience,andmakewomenreluctanttocompeteforpoliticaloffices.7Genderrolesdefinetheattributesmenandwomenareexpectedtodisplayandtheactionstheyareexpectedtotakeinagivensituation(e.g.,ahusband’sroleistobethemainproviderofthehousehold).Some,butnotall,genderrolesarelinkedtosocialnorms,asnotallrolesareinterdependentofexpectationsbyothersorsanctionedwhennotmet.

6Thesedifferentelementsarealsoknownasempiricalexpectationsordescriptivenorm(expectedbehaviorsbyothers),normativeexpectationsorinjunctivenorms(expectedbeliefsbyothers),andpersonalnormativebeliefs(whatIbelieveshouldhappen).

7Forfurtherdiscussionsonstereotypes,seeBordaloetal.(2016and2019),Carlana(2019),Bertrand(2020).

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BOX1:DEFINITIONSOFSOCIALNORMSUSEDBYTHEWORLDBANK

WhiletheWorldBank’sworkhashighlightedtheroleofsocialnormsinrelationtogenderinequality,socialnormshavenotalwaysbeendefined.Since2000,8andmoresystematicallysincetheWorldDevelopmentReport2012onGenderEqualityandDevelopment,definitionsofnormshavebecomemorespecific.Theyareincludedinsectoralguidelinesrangingfromsocialprotectiontofinancialinclusion,amongothers.9Whilethereisnostandarddefinitionofsocialnormsusedacrosstheinstitution,therearecommonelementstoallofthem,andtheyhaveevolvedtoincludecoreelementsagreedonbythebroaderacademicliteratureonsocialnorms.

Definition

Socialnormsandcustoms[…]shapeindividualpreferencesandpowerrelationsbetweenthesexes.Socialnormsthuscreatepowerfulincentivesthatguidepeople’sbehavior,andbehavioroutsidetheacceptedboundariescanunleashformalandinformalsystemsofsocialsanction.

Patternsofbehaviorthatflowfromsociallysharedbeliefsandareenforcedbyinformalsocialsanctions.

Exclusionplaysoutthroughbothtangibleandintangiblepracticesandprocesses[…]itisrootedinintangiblesocialnormsandbeliefs,whichinturnleadtostereotypes,prejudices,andstigmas.Theseintangiblefeaturesaresociallyconstructedandplayedoutbyboththeexcluderandtheexcluded.

Maincharacteristics-(a)regulatesindividualbehaviorinasociety;(b)specificallyprescribewhatbehaviorisexpectedandwhatisnotallowedinspecificcircumstances;(c)tellapersonwhattobelieveothersexpectofherbehaviorandtellotherswhattoexpectfromthatperson;(d)expectedagreement,orbeliefthattheagreementexists,onthecontentofthenormandanenforcementofsuchagreementorbeliefbywhoeverholdspower.

Powerfulprescriptionsreflectedinformalstructuresofsocietyandinitsinformalrules,beliefs,andattitudes.Suchnormsarereinforcedbysanctions,whichcanbepositiveornegative,imposedbypeoplebelongingtothesamereferencegrouporbythestate(MackieandLeJeune,2009).

Broadlysharedbeliefsaboutwhatgroupmembersarelikelytodoandoughttodo-(they)areinformalgovernancemechanismsthatexertapowerfulinfluenceonindividualdecisionmakingandbehavior.

Collectivelyheldexpectationsandperceivedrulesforhowindividualsshouldbehavebasedontheirgenderidentity(Burjorjee,El-ZoghbiandMeyers,2017).Socialnormshavethreekeyfeatures:highprevalence(irrespectiveofpersonalpreferences);expectationsthatotherscomplyandexpectthemtodothesame;andsanctionsandrewardsfromreferencegroup.

WorldDevelopmentReport(2012)

Inclusion

Matters(2013)

AddressingGenderNormstoIncreaseFinancialInclusion(2021)

WorldDevelopmentReport(2015)

EngenderingDevelopment(2001)

OnNormsandAgency(2013)

VoiceandAgency(2014)

Source

8InpublicationssuchasEngenderingDevelopment(WorldBank,2001).

9SeeforexampleCGAP’sguidanceonsocialnorms(Koning,LedgerwoodandSingh,2021),andtherecentSPJguidancenoteonsocialnorms.

4

Measuringsocialnorms

Advancesindefinitionofsocialnormshaveonlyrecentlybeenmatchedwithprogressinmeasuringsocialnormspresenceandstrengthbeyondproxiessuchasindividualattitudes.Socialnormsareparticularlydifficulttomeasureandquantify,butprogressisbeingmade.Asidefromqualitativedata(e.g.Barbonietal.2018andMuñozBoudet,PeteschandTurk2013),socialnormsaremostcommonlyobservedviaproxymeasures.Theseareoutcomesthatareassumedtobestronglydependentonsocialnorms(e.g.,childmarriage,sonpreference,orwomen’stimeallocation

tocareduties),individualattitudesoropinionsthatexpresscommonlyheldviews,orbythepresenceorabsenceofspecificlegalnormsorpolicies(e.g.,divorceorinheritancelawsorparentalleavepolicies).10Amongthemostwidelyuseddatasourcesonsocialandgendernorms,the

World

ValuesSurvey(WVS)

,the

DemographicandHealthSurveys

(DHS)

,andthe

InternationalMenandGenderSurvey

(IMAGES)

allcollectdataonattitudes,andsomeoutcomes,asproxiesforgendernorms.Morerecently,WVSandthe

GallupWorldPoll

haveexpandedtoincludedirectsocial

normsmeasures.

10Forexample,theWorldBank’sGenderDataPortalcurrentlytracksonlyoutcomesandattitudesunder“normsanddecisionmaking.”

Similarly,UNDPsGenderSocialNormsIndexusesattitudesquestionsfromtheWVSandtheOECDSocialInstitutionsandGenderIndex(GINI)combinesallthreetypesofvariables,namelylegalframeworks,attitudinalvariables,andpracticevariablesorobservableoutcomes.

5

FIGURE1:SHAREOFPOPULATIONAGREEINGWITHTHESTATEMENT

“WHENJOBSARESCARCEMENSHOULDHAVEMORERIGHTTOAJOB

THANWOMEN”(WVS2017-2022WAVE)

Moreeffortisneededtomeasuresocialnormsdirectlytounderstandthemmorefully.Effortstodocumentandidentifythedifferentelementsthatindicatethepresenceandstrengthofsocialnorms(e.g.,sanctionsorbehaviorspeopledobecausetheyassumetheyareexpectedareimportanttoinfluencethetypeofpolicyintervention),andevenwhetherpolicyactionshouldfocusonaspecificsocialnormornot.Take,forexample,attitudesaboutjobscarcity(seeFigure1).Whenaskedifmenhavemorerighttoajobthanwomenwhenjobsarescarce,thelevelofagreementvarieswidelyacrosscountries.IncountriessuchasIndonesia,Jordan,andPakistanrespondentsmorestronglyagreedthanrespondentsfromtheUnitedStates,Poland,andGuatemala.Attitudesquestionsliketheseareapartialcaptureofsocialnormsandmaynotbeanaccuratereflectionoftheactualsocialnormsatplay.Thepreferenceformenholdingajoboverwomencanbeattributedtoasocialnormthatdisapprovesofwomenworking(inallcases,andnotonlywhenjobsarescarce);itmightberelatedtoaprevalentviewofmenasthemainbreadwinnersofhouseholdsthatcanbenormativeor

canbearesponsetothetypesofjobsavailableinagiveneconomy;orcandependofthecurrenteconomicsituationinacountryatthetimeofthesurvey.Attitudesrespondtovaryingeconomicandpoliticalcircumstances;henceresponsescanalsoshiftdependingonthesalienceofthecircumstancefortherespondent.

Directmeasuresofsocialnormsaskrespondentstoestimatehowcommonitisforpeopleintheirsocialgrouptoexhibitabehavior,whethertheyapprovethebehavior,andtheconsequencesofthem.Forexample,thelatestroundoftheWVSincludedalargergendermodulethataskedrespondentsaboutwomenintheircommunities(empiricalexpectations),women’sownbehavior,andpossiblenegativeimpacts(sanctions)forwomenwhoworkforpay.11ComparingEthiopiaandKenya,twocountrieswithsimilarlevelsofreportedwomenworking(atthecommunityandself),thepossiblesocialcostsofworkingappeartobeverydifferent(seeFigure2).WomeninKenyaaremorelikelytofacecriticisms,familyconflict,andreputationalcosts.

11Sanctionquestionsarephrasedas,“Ifawomanworksoutsideofthehomeformoney,howlikelyisitthatthefollowingconsequencesmightoccur.”

6

FIGURE2:NORMSAROUNDWOMENWORKINGFORPAY

(WVS2020,2021)

Measurementofbothsocialexpectationsandpersonalbeliefscanrevealphenomena,suchaspluralisticignorance(whenpersonalbeliefsaremisalignedwiththeexpectedsocialbeliefs),thatcanbetargetedwithpolicyinterventions.ArecentsurveybyMetaandtheWorldBank(seeFigure3)askedrespondentstoreportboththeirpersonalbeliefsaswellasthoseamongpeoplearoundthem.12Theresultsshowhowthereisadifferencebetweenindividualattitudesandsocialexpectations.Whenaskedifboysandgirlsshouldsharehouseholdtasksequally,respondents’personalbeliefsweremoreegalitarianthanwhattheyattributetotheirneighbors.Thefindingsweresimilarwhenaskedaboutthenormofwomen’sroleascareproviderandhomemakerormen’sroleaseconomicprovider.However,thesurveyfindsthatforrespondentsinSouthAsiaandSub-SaharanAfrica,individualandcollectiveperceptionsarealigned.

Pluralisticignoranceisanimportantinsightforpoliciesasitindicatesanopportunitytoadjustsocialexpectationswithinformation.Bursztynetal.(2023)findasimilarpatternusingsimilarquestionsconstructionintheGallupWorldPoll.Theyfindthatmisperceptionsarecommonacrosscountries,andthatthesemisperceptionsaredifferentbetweenmenandwomen(withmenhavinghigherlevelsofmisperceptions).13Theseinsightsareimportant,asthebeliefthatothershavelowersupportforequalitymayleadindividualstoactinlinewiththesemisperceivedsocietalexpectations,despitetheirownbeliefstothecontrary.14

12Questionswerephrasedas“Howmuchdoyouagreeordisagreewiththefollowingstatement?”and“Outof10ofyourneighbors,howmanydoyouthinkbelievethat…,”respectively.

13AsimilardifferencewasfoundbyGauri,Rahman,andSen(2019)inJordan,andinIraqbySenetal.(2022).

14ThisisthemechanismanddifferenceleveragedbyBursztyn,González,&Yanagizawa-Drott(2018)inSaudiArabiaintervention.

7

FIGURE3:INDIVIDUALATTITUDESANDNORMATIVEEXPECTATIONS

ONGENDER(META,SURVEYOFGENDEREQUALITYATHOME)

Bettermeasurementofsocialnormsisespeciallyimportantforprogramdesign,monitoring,andimpactassessment15Themechanismsthroughwhichsocialnormsimpactgenderequalityoutcomesmaybecomplex,involvemultipleactorsatvariouslevels(households,communities,societies),andoperatedifferentlydependingontheheterogeneityofwomen’sopportunities,agency,andconstraints.Inmanycasesacompletenormchangemighttaketimethatgoesbeyondthelifetimeofaprogramorproject.Thesamecanhappenwiththeobservationofchangesintheoutcomesthatareexpectedtoshiftbyachangeinthesocialnorm.Usingtoolsthatcanrevealintermediatechangesinsanctionsandotherareascan

informapolicyintervention.Theseincludechangesinlevelsofadherenceandperceivedadherencetoanorm,changesintheconditionsunderwhichanormtriggerssanctions—seeFigure4forexample,theJordansurveyonsocialnormsshowsanimportantvariationanddeclineofsupportonwomen’sworkdependingonthespecificconditionsofsuchwork,andadeclineinpersonalbeliefs(attitudes)fromageneralquestiontoonewithmorespecificity.Howstrongorweakthesanctionsareforthosewhodeviatefromthenormarealsoimportanttobeobservedastheycanindicatethestrengthofnormenforcement.Allofthesemeasurescanindicatethattheprocessofnormchangeistakingplace,evenifnotyetreflectedinoutcomesoraggregatelevelsofindividualperceptions.

15Itshouldbenotedthateffortssuchasthe

EMERGE

(Evidence-basedMeasuresofEmpowermentforResearchonGenderEquality)initiativethathavecompiledseveraltoolsaimingtomeasuresocialnormsarepartoftheeffortstodocumentwhatisavailableintermsoftools.

8

FIGURE4:CONDITIONALSUPPORTFORWOMEN’SWORK(JORDAN)

Source:Gauri,Rahman,andSen(2019)

Insum,workonsocialnormshasmadeimportantadvances—bothindefinitionandmeasurement—whichshouldbeadoptedmoresystematically.Whiledataavailabilityonsocialnormsremainslimited,proxymeasures(suchasattitudes)shouldbeusedwithgreaterattentiontothefactthattheyareonlyapartialview.Theymaynotbereflectiveoftheprevalentsocialnorms,andadditionaldataandinformationmaybeneededforsuccessfulinterventiondesign.EffortssuchasBussoloetal.(2022)thatbringtogetherlong-termtrendsinoutcomesandattitudesoncerta