二语习得-20课件

TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearch

xxWewilllimitourselvestothepost-warperiod,whichhasseenthedevelopmentoftheorizingaboutsecondlanguagelearningfromanadjuncttolanguagepedagogy,toanautonomousfieldofresearch.Theperiodsincethe1950scanitselfbedividedintothreemainphases. 1.1950-1960 2. 1970 3.1980-1990

30xxII.TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearch Wewillstartwiththe1950sand1960sandashortdescriptionofhowsecondlanguageswerebelievedtobelearntatthetime.Wewillthendescribetheimpactofthe‘Chomskyanrevolution’inlinguisticsonthefieldoflanguageacquisition,initiallyonthestudyoffirstlanguageacquisition,andsubsequentlythatofsecondlanguageacquisition.

30+TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchChomskyanRevolution以转换–生成语法著称的乔式语言结构理论。1957年因他的《句法结构》的发表而使语言学研究革命化。到60年代中期，Chomsky开始强调语言对研究人类心灵所起的关键作用。他认为语言学应视为认知心理学的一个分支，这一观点主要在《语言与心理》中作了论证。正是他思想的这一方面广泛吸引了语言学以外的学者，特别是在哲学界和心理学界。

31TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchTGGrammar(transformational-generativegrammar)AtheoryofgrammarwhichwasproposedbytheChomskyin1957.Ithassincebeendevelopedbyhimandmanyotherlinguists.Chomskyattemptedtoprovideamodelforthedescriptionofalllanguages.ATGgrammartriestoshow,withasystemofrules,theknowledgewhichanativespeakerofalanguageusesinforminggrammaticalsentences.转换生成语法试图用一套规则把操本族语者用以产生合乎语法的句子的知识显示出来.32

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ThepoliceraisehisrevolverNDETTheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearch1.The1950sand1960sInthe1950sandearly1960s,theorizingaboutlanguagelearningwasstillverymuchanadjuncttothepracticalbusinessoflanguageteaching.However,theideathatlanguageteachingmethodshadtobejustifiedintermsofandunderlyinglearningtheorywaswellestablished.Atthattimethegenerallearningtheorydominantinmainstreampsychologywasbehaviorism.

TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchBehaviorismAtheoryofpsychologywhichstatesthathumanandanimalbehaviorcanandshouldbestudiedintermsofphysicalprocessesonly(includinglanguage)Itledtotheoriesoflearningwhichexplainedhowanexternalevent(astimulus)causedachangeinthebehaviorofanindividual(aresponse)withoutusingconceptslike“mind”or“ideas”,oranykindofmentalbehavior.

34+TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearch行为主义是心理学的一个理论，说明人和动物的行为只能且必须从生理过程的角度来研究，受它影响而产生的学习理论解释了人是如何受外部事件（刺激）的影响产生行为变化（反应）而不需要“意向”或“意念”或任何内心行为等概念。 35TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchBehaviorisminLinguisticsInthebehavioristview,languageleaningisseenlikeanyotherkindofleaning,astheformationofhabits.Itstemsfromworkinpsychologywhichsawthelearningofanykindofbehaviorasbeingbasedonthenotionsofstimulusandresponse.Thisviewseeshumanbeingsasbeingexposedtonumerousstimuliintheirenvironment.Theresponsetheygivetosuchstimuliwillbereinforcedifsuccessful,thatisifsomedesiredoutcomeisobtained.Throughrepeatedreinforcement,acertainstimuluswillelicitthesameresponsetimeandagain,whichwillthenbecomeahabit.Thelearningofanyskillisastheformationofhabits,thatisthecreationofstimulus-responsepairingswhichbecomestrongerwithreinforcement.

36xxe.g.TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchxxFromateachingpointofview,theimplicationsofthisapproachweretwofold.First,itwasstronglybelievethatpracticemakesperfect;inotherwords,learningwouldtakeplacebyimitatingandrepeatingthesamestructurestimeaftertime.Second,teachersneededtofocustheirteachingonstructureswhichwerebelievedtobedifficult,andaswesawabove,difficultstructureswouldbethosethatweredifferentintheL1andtheL2.

37TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchExamples:（与L1不同之处，是L2学习的困难之处）1.HestudiesEnglish2.HedoesnotstudyEnglish.3.DoeshestudyEnglish?4.Whatdoeshestudy?

37+TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchThelogicaloutcomeofsuchbelievesaboutthelearningprocesswasthateffectiveteachingwouldconcentrateonareasofdifference,andthatthebestpedagogicaltoolforforeignlanguageteachersthereforeasoundknowledgeofthoseareas.

38TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchResearchersembarkedonthehugetaskofcomparingpairsoflanguagesinordertopinpointareasofdifference,thereforeofdifficulty.ThiswastermedContrastiveAnalysis.

38+TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchCA:thecomparisonofthelinguisticsystemsoftwolanguages,forexamplethesoundsystemorthegrammaticalsystem.Contrastiveanalysiswasdevelopedandpracticedinthe1950sand1960s,asanapplicationofstructurallinguistics(basedonthetheoryofbehaviorism)tolanguageteaching,andisbasedonthefollowingassumptions:a.themaindifficultiesinlearninganewlanguagearecausedbyinterferencefromthefirstlanguageb.thesedifficultiescanbepredictedbycontrastiveanalysis.39

TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchc.teachingmaterialscanmakeuseofcontrastiveanalysistoreducetheeffectsofinterferenceContrastiveanalysiswasmoresuccessfulinphonologythaninotherareasoflanguage,anddeclinedinthe1970sasinterferencewasreplacedbyotherexplanationsoflearningdifficulties.Inrecentyears,contrastiveanalysishasbeenappliedtootherareasoflanguage,forexamplethediscoursesystems.

40TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchCA:a.对比分析学习一门新的语言，其主要困难来自第一语言的干扰b.困难可以通过对比分析来预测c.运用对比分析来编写教材，可以减少干扰的影响。到了70年代ErrorAnalysis取而代之。

41TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchBehaviorismunderAttackStartinginthe1950sandcontinuing1960s,boththefieldsoflinguisticsandofpsychologywitnessedmajordevelopments.Linguisticssawashiftfromstructurallinguistics（basedonbehaviorism）,whichwasbasedonthedescriptionofthesurfacestructureofalargecorpusoflanguage,togenerativelinguistics（havingtheabilitytocreatesentencesbyusingaperson’sinnatelanguageability,notlearnfromothers,producingsentencesbyoneself）whichemphasizedtherule-governedandcreativenatureofhumanlanguage.ThisshifthadbeeninitiatedbythepublicationofSyntacticStructures,thefirstofmanyinfluentialbooksbyNoamChomsky.43TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchStructuralistlinguistics结构语言学用来指任何一种注重用结构和系统明确描写语言特征的语言分析法。一般的索绪尔式的结构主义思想已溶入语言学的每一个学派。但是结构主义还有一个较狭窄的定义，指的是布龙菲尔德式的方法，即强调话段（即乔姆斯基后来称作表层结构的）有形特征的切分和分类程序，不怎麽考虑语言抽象的底层结构（乔姆斯基的深层结构）。正是这种强调遭到乔姆斯基式语言理论的强烈批评；因此对生成语言学而言，这个名词常带有贬意。

44TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchStructuralistlinguisticsAnapproachtolinguisticswhichstressestheimportanceoflanguageasasystemandwhichinvestigatestheplacethatlinguisticunitssuchassounds,words,sentenceshavewithinthissystem.

结构语言学强调把语言作为一个系统来研究的重要性,并研究语音,单词,句子等语言单位在这个系统中的地位.StructuralistlinguisticsisoftenusedtorefertoagroupofAmericanlinguistssuchasBloomfieldandFrics,whopublishedmainlyinthe1930sato1950s.Theworkoftheselinguistswasbasedonthetheoryofbehaviorismandhadaconsiderableinfluenceonsomelanguageteachingmethods.(Audiolingualmethodisbasedonbehaviorism;languageislearnedthroughforminghabits)语言通过形成习惯而习得.TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchStructurallinguisticswasestablishedtofocusonlanguagestructures,primarilythosewhicharedifferentfromthoseintypicalIndo-Europeanlanguages.

Structurallinguisticswouldemphasizethatasentencehaveanounandverbinagreement,whiletraditionally,asentenceneedstobea"completethought.

TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchStructurallinguistsalsobelievedthatthelinguisticbehaviorsofthemembersofaspeechcommunitywerebasedonorderlystructuresthateachmemberofthecommunityshared.TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchStructurallinguisticshasbeenprovenveryusefulintheanalysisoftheprocessoflinguisticbehavior.Wenowhaveabetterwayoflearninghowpeopleacquirelanguageandalsohowspeakerscommunicatemeaningtotheirlisteners.ThistypeofinformationisusefultoteachersofEnglishasafirstorasecondlanguageandsimilarteachersoflanguagearoundtheworld.Itisalsousefulinunderstandingthewaythatdifferentculturescommunicatetheirintentionstoeachother,aswellascommunicationwhichoccurswithinasingleculture.TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchInthefieldofpsychology,thepre-eminentrolefortheenvironmentwhichwasarguedbySkinnerinshapingthechild’slearningandbehaviorwaslosinggroundinfavorofmoredevelopmentalistviewsoflearning,suchasPiaget’s(皮亚杰)cognitivedevelopmentaltheory,inwhichinnerforcesdrivethechild,ininteractionwiththeenvironment.

45TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchJeanPiaget,thepioneeringSwissphilosopherandpsychologist,spentmuchofhisprofessionallifelisteningtochildren,watchingchildrenandporingoverreportsofresearchersaroundtheworldwhoweredoingthesame.Hefound,toputitmostsuccinctly,thatchildrendon'tthinklikegrownups.Afterthousandsofinteractionswithyoungpeopleoftenbarelyoldenoughtotalk,Piagetbegantosuspectthatbehindtheircuteandseeminglyillogicalutteranceswerethoughtprocessesthathadtheirownkindoforderandtheirownspeciallogic.TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchHisresearchesindevelopmentalpsychologyandgeneticepistemologyhadoneuniquegoal:howdoesknowledgegrow?Hisansweristhatthegrowthofknowledgeisaprogressiveconstructionoflogicallyembeddedstructuressupersedingoneanotherbyaprocessofinclusionoflowerlesspowerfullogicalmeansintohigherandmorepowerfulonesuptoadulthood.Therefore,children'slogicandmodesofthinkingareinitiallyentirelydifferentfromthoseofadults.TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchPiaget’sGeneticepistemology发生认知论AtermusedtodescribethetheoriesofdevelopmentalpsychologyoftheSwisspsychologistJeanPiaget(1896-1980).Helistedseveraldifferentstageswhichchildrenpassthroughinmentaldevelopment.Thefirststageisthesensorimotorstage(感觉运动期)，frombirthtoabout24months.Itlastsfrombirthtoabouttwoyearsold.

Asthenameimplies,theinfantusessensesandmotorabilitiestounderstandtheworld,beginningwithreflexesandendingwithcomplexcombinationsofsensorimotor

skills.Theycanusementalcombinationstosolvesimpleproblems,suchasputtingdownatoyinordertoopenadoor.

Andtheygetgoodatpretending.

Insteadofusingdolliesessentiallyassomethingtositat,suckon,orthrow,nowthechildwillsingtoit,tuckitintobed,andsoon.46TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchThenextthreestagesareamovementtowardsmoreabstractprocesses.Duringthepre-operationalstage(前运思期),fromabouttwotosevenyears.Thechildhasmentalrepresentationsandisabletopretend,itisashortsteptotheuseofsymbols.Asymbolisathingthatrepresentssomethingelse.

Adrawing,awrittenword,oraspokenwordcomestobeunderstoodasrepresentingarealdog.Theuseoflanguageis,ofcourse,theprimeexample,butanothergoodexampleofsymboluseiscreativeplay,whereincheckersarecookies,papersaredishes,aboxisthetable,andsoon.

Bymanipulatingsymbols,weareessentiallythinking,inawaytheinfantcouldnot:intheabsenceoftheactualobjectsinvolved! 47TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchTheconcreteoperationalstage（具体运思期)fromaboutseventoelevenyearsistheperiodwhenchildrenbegintousementaloperationsandacquireanumberofconceptsofconservation.Thewordoperationsreferstologicaloperationsorprinciplesweusewhensolvingproblems.Inthisstage,thechildnotonlyusessymbolsrepresentationally,butcanmanipulatethosesymbolslogically.

Quiteanaccomplishment!But,atthispoint,theymuststillperformtheseoperationswithinthecontextofconcretesituations.Theyoungerchildmaystartputtingthingsinorderby,saysize,butwillquicklylosetrack.

Nowthechildhasnoproblemwithsuchatask.Sincearithmeticisessentiallynothingmorethanclassificationandseriation,thechildisnowreadyforsomeformaleducation!TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchDuringtheformaloperationalstage（正式运思期）,fromaboutelevenonwards,childrenareableodealwithabstractconceptsandpropositions,andtomakehypotheses,inferences,anddeductions.TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchTheconcreteoperationschildhasahardtimeapplyinghisnew-foundlogicalabilitiestonon-concrete--i.e.abstract--events.

Ifmomsaystojunior“Youshouldn’tmakefunofthatboy’snose.

Howwouldyoufeelifsomeonedidthattoyou?”Heislikelytorespond“Idon’thaveabignose!”

Eventhissimplelessonmaywellbetooabstract,toohypothetical,forhiskindofthinking.Fromaround12on,weentertheformaloperationsstage.

Herewebecomeincreasinglycompetentatadult-stylethinking.

Thisinvolvesusinglogicaloperations,andusingthemintheabstract,ratherthantheconcrete.

TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchPiaget’sGeneticepistemology发生认知论1.birth–2sensorimotorstage(感觉运动期)2.2–7pre-operationalstage(前运思期)3.7–11concreteoperationalstage(具体运思期)4.11--formaloperationalstage(正式运思期))TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchTheclashofviewsaboutthewayinwhichwelearnlanguagecametoaheadattheendofthe1950swithtwopublications.ThesewereSkinner’sVerbalBehaviorin1957whichoutlinedindetailhisbehavioristviewoflearningasappliedtolanguage,andChomsky’sreviewofSkinner’sbook,publishedin1959,whichwasafiercecritiqueofSkinner’sviews.48TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchChomsky’scriticismscenteredonanumberofissues.1.Thecreativityoflanguage:childrendonotlearnandreproducealargesetofsentences,buttheyroutinelycreatenewsentencesthattheyhaveneverlearntbefore.Thisisonlypossiblebecausetheyinternalizerulesratherthanstringsofwords;extremelycommonexamplesofutterancessuchasitbreakedorMummygoedshowclearlythatchildrenarenotcopyingthelanguagearoundthembutapplyrules.TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchChomskywasincensedbytheideathatyoucouldcomparethebehaviorofratsinalab,learningtoperformsimpletasks,tothebehaviorofchildrenlearninglanguagewithoutdirectteaching,afundamentallydifferenttaskbecauseofitssheercomplexityandabstractness.49TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearch2.Giventhecomplexityandabstractnessoflinguisticrules(forexample,therulesunderlyingtheuseofreflexivepronounsinEnglish),itisamazingthatchildrenareabletomasterthemsoquicklyandefficiently,especiallygiventhelimitedinputtheyreceive..

TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchFurthermore,childrenhavebeenshownnottobeusuallycorrectedontheformoftheirutterancesbutratherontheirtruthvalues.Thencorrectiondoestakeplace,itseemstohaveverylittleeffectonthedevelopmentoflanguagestructure.

50exTheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearch2.The1970sInthe1970s

researchersfoundstrikingsimilaritiesinthelanguagelearningbehaviorofyoungchildren,whateverthelanguagetheywerelearning,itseemsthatchildrenallovertheworldgothroughsimilarstages,usesimilarconstructionsinordertoexpresssimilarmeanings,andmakethesamekindsoferrors.Thestagescanbesummarizedasfollows:Languagestage BeginningageCrying BirthCooing 6weeks51TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchBabbling 6monthsIntonationpatterns 8monthsOne-wordutterances 1year**Two-wordutterance 18monthsWordinflections 2yearsQuestions,negatives 2years3monthsRareorcomplexconstructions 5yearsMaturespeech 10years52xxTheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchRogerBrown’sso-called‘morphemestudy’isprobablythebest-knownL1studyofthattime,andwastobeveryinfluentialforsecondlanguageacquisitionresearch.Inanin-depthstudyofthreechildrenofdifferentbackgrounds,hecomparedthedevelopmentoffourteengrammaticalmorphemesinEnglish.Hefoundthatalthoughtherateatwhichchildrenlearntthesemorphemesvaried,theorderinwhichtheyacquiredthemremainedthesameforallchildren,aslistedbelowinasimplifiedform.

53TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchPresentprogressive boysingingPrepositions dollyincarPlural sweetiesPastirregular brokePossessive baby’sbiscuitArticles acarPastregular wanted3rdpersonsingular eatsAuxiliarybe Heisrunning.

54TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchWhatisstrikingisthat,notonlydochildrenacquireanumberofgrammaticalmorphemesinafixedorder,buttheyalsofollowfairlyrigidstagesduringtheacquisitionofagivenareaofgrammar.(Ellis)

55xxTheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchStage1:Negativeutterancesconsistofa‘nucleus’(i.e.thepositiveproposition)eitherprecededorfollowedbyanegator.wearmittennonotateddybearStage2.Negatorsarenowincorporatedintoaffirmativeclauses.Negatorsatthisstageincludedon’tandcan’t,usedasunitaryitems.Negativecommandsappear:ThesenosquirrelsYoucan’tdanceDon’tbitemeyetStage3:Nagatorsarenowalwaysincorporatedintoaffirmativeclauses.The‘Auxiliary+not’rulehasbeenacquired,asdon’t,can’tetc.arenowanalyzed.Butsomemistakesstilloccur(e.g.copulabeisomittedfromnegativeutterancesanddoublenegativesoccur).Idon’thaveabook Idon’thavenomoney.Paulcan’thaveone Therearen’tnomistakesinmyhomework.InotcryingNoonedidn’tcome56xxTheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchThefactthatchildrendonotseemtocorrecttheir‘errors’onthebasisofadultovertorimpliedcorrectionofchildren’sutterancesiswelldocumentedinthefirstlanguageacquisitionliterature.Thefollowingdialogueistypicaloftheuselessnessofsuchattempts.ThepsycholinguistMartinBraineoncetriedforseveralweekstostampoutoneofhisdaughter’sgrammaticalerrors.Hereistheresult:

57TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchChild: Wantotheronespoon,DaddyFather: Youmean,youwantTHEOTHERSPOONChild: Yes,Iwantotheronespoon,please,DaddyFather: Canyousay’theotherspoon’?Child: Other…one…spoonFather: Say…’other’Child: OtherFather: ‘Spoon’Child: SpoonFather: ‘Other…spoon’Child: Other…spoon.Nowgivemeotheronespoon?

58xxTheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchFromthisnecessarilybriefandoversimplifiedaccountof1970s’firstlanguageacquisitionresearch,thefollowingcharacteristicsemerge.1.Childrengothroughstages.2.Thesestagesareverysimilaracrosschildrenforagivenlanguage,althoughtherateatwhichindividualchildrenprogressthroughthemishighlyvariable.3.Thesestagesaresimilaracrosslanguages.TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearch4.Childlanguageisrule-governedandsystematic,andtherulescreatedbythechilddonotnecessarilycorrespondtoadultones.5.Childrenareresistanttocorrection.6.Children’sprocessingcapacitylimitsthenumberofrulestheycanapplyatanyonetime,andtheywillreverttoearlierhypotheseswhentwoormorerulescompete. 59xxTheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchThebirthoferroranalysis:Teacherswerefindingoutintheclassroomthatconstructionsthatweredifferentinpairsoflanguageswerenotnecessarilydifficult,andthatconstructionsthatweresimilarintwolanguageswerenotnecessarilyeasyeither.Example:Hedidnotcameat2:00pm.Igoingtoseeafilmthisafternoon.60xxTheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchErroranalysisThestudyandanalysisoftheERRORSmadebysecondlanguagelearners..Erroranalysismaybecarriedoutinordertoa.identifystrategieswhichlearnersuseinlanguagelearningb.trytoidentifythecausesoflearnererrorsc.obtaininformationoncommondifficultiesinlanguagelearning,asanaidtoteachingorinthepreparationofteachingmaterials.42xx3

TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchAbasicdistinctionwasdrawnbetweenintralingual

andinterlingualerrors.

intralingualerrors

1.

overgeneralization 2.simplification 3.developmentalerrors 4.communication-basederrors 5.inducederrors 6.errorsofavoidance42+xx4TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchInareviewofstudieslookingattheproportionoferrorsthatcanbetracedbacktothefirstlanguage,Ellisfoundthattherewasconsiderablevariationinthefindings,withresultsrangingfrom3percentoferrorsattributedtotheL1,to51percent,withmajorityofstudiesfindingaroundathirdofallerrorstraceabletotheL1.ErrorAnalysisthusshowedclearlythatthemajorityoftheerrorsmadebysecondlanguagelearnersdonotcomefromtheirfirstlanguage.61xxTheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchTheterminterlanguagewascoinedin1972bySelinkertorefertothelanguageproducedbylearners,bothasasystemwhichcanbedescribedatanyonepointintimeasresultingfromsystematicrules,andastheseriesofinterlockingsystemsthatcharacterizelearnerprogression.Inotherwords,thenotionofinterlanguage

putstheemphasisontwofundamentalnotions:thelanguageproducedbythelearnerisasysteminitsownright,obeyingitsownrules,anditisadynamicsystem,evolvingovertime.InterlanguagestudiesthusmovedonestepbeyondErrorAnalysis,byfocusingonthelearnersystemasawhole,ratherthanonlyonwhatcangowrongwithit.

62TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchInterlanguageThetypeoflanguageproducedbysecond-andforeign-languagelearnerswhoareintheprocessoflearningalanguage.Inlanguagelearning,learners’errorsarecausedbyseveraldifferentprocesses.Theseincludea.borrowingpatternsfromthemothertongue(Ihavelefthomefor3days.)b.extendingpatternsfromthetargetlanguage,e.g.byanalogy(furnitures,informations)

63TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchc.expressingmeaningsusingthewordsandgrammarwhicharealreadyknown(Thisplac