写作篇-ChapterTwo-and-Three教学讲解课件

ProgressiveWritingPartTwo、ThreeParagraphWritingChapterTwoTheParagraphIV.UnityV.CoherenceI.IntroductionII.TheTwoPartsofaTopicSentenceIII.TheConcludingSentenceI.IntroductionAparagraphisabasicunitoforganizationinwriting,inwhichagroupofrelatedsentencesdevelopsonemainidea.Aparagraphmaystandbyitself.Aparagraphmayalsobeonepartofalongerpieceofwritingsuchasanessayorachapterofabook.ThetopicsentenceAconcludingsentenceThreePartsofaParagraph

Supportingsentencesstatesthemainideaoftheparagraph.developthetopicsentence.signalstheendoftheparagraphandleavesthereaderwithimportantpointstorememberI.IntroductionInadditiontothethreestructuralpartsofaparagraph,agoodparagraphalsohastheelementsofunityandcoherence.UNITYmeansthatyoudiscussonlyonemainideainaparagraph.Themainideaisstatedinthetopicsentence,andtheneachandeverysupportingsentencedevelopsthatidea.I.IntroductionCOHERENCEmeansthatyourparagraphiseasytoreadandunderstandbecause1)yoursupportingsentencesareinsomekindoflogicalorderand2)yourideasareconnectedbytheuseofappropriatetransitionsignals.Insummary,awell-writtenparagraphcontainsfiveelements:atopicsentence,supportingsentences,aconcludingsentence,unity,andcoherence.I.Introduction2.ThreeImportantPointsEverygoodparagraphhas

atopicsentence,whichclearlystatesthetopicandthecontrollingideaoftheparagraph.Itis

usually(butnotalways)thefirstsentence

intheparagraph.Atopicsentenceisthe

mostimportant

sentenceinaparagraph.Itbrieflyindicateswhattheparagraphisgoingtodiscuss.I.Introduction

Therearethreeimportantpointstorememberaboutatopicsentence.

1.Atopicsentenceisa

completesentence.

2.Atopicsentencecontainsbotha

topic

anda

controllingidea.Itnamesthetopicandthenlimitsthetopictoaspecificareatobediscussedinthespaceofasingleparagraph.

3.Atopicsentenceisthemostgeneralstatementintheparagraphbecauseitgivesonlythemainidea.Itdoesnotgiveanyspecificdetails.I.IntroductionPositionofTopicsentencesbethefirstsentenseMediaBias(偏见）

Itisnotpossiblefortelevisionnewstobecompletelyobjective.Foronething,somejudgmentisrequiredeventodeterminewhatthefactsare.Reporterswhoarenoteyewitnessesmustdrawconclusionsfromeyewitnessaccountsaboutwhathappened.Moreover,decidingwhatisnewsworthyrequiresjudgment.Thelimitsoftimemakeitnecessarytoselectonlywhatismostimportanttoviewers.Thatselectionprocessisinevitablyaffectedbythepreferencesandbiasesofeditorsandproducers.topicsentenceFurthermore,televisionlendsitselfbettertoactionscenesthanto“talkingheads,”sowearemorelikelytoseeademonstratorwhogetsviolentthantheorderlyproblemsolvingdiscussionofagroupofexperts.bethelastsentenseMedicalMiraclestoComeBytheyear2009,avaccine（疫苗）againstthecommoncoldwillhavebeendeveloped.Bythesameyear,thefirsthumanwillhavebeensuccessfullycloned.Bythe2014,parentswillbeabletocreatedesignerchildren.Genetictherapy治疗willbeabletomanipulategenesforI.Introductionabilities,intelligence,andhair,eye,andskincolor.By2020,mostdiseaseswillbeabletobediagnosedandtreatedathome,andby2030,cancerandheartdiseasewillhavebeenwipedout.Thesearejustafewexamplesofmedicalmiraclesthatareexpectedinthenextfewdecades.I.Introductionimplied

TheroomislocatedonthethirdflooroftheSouthBuilding.Onethirdofitstotalfloorspaceistakenupbyadoublebed.Facingit,inthecornerbehindthedoor,standsacupboardloadedwithpots,bowls,dishes,bottles,andbagsofriceandflour.Adeskcompletelyfillsthegapbetweenthebedandthewallwiththewindow.Behindthedeskisachair,theonlyoneintheroom;anditalmosttouchestheboxesandtrunkspiledagainstthewallontheoppositeside.Thoughwithoutatopicsentence,theparagraphisunified.I.IntroductionII.TheTwoPartsofaTopicSentenceFormationTopic

tonamethesubject,ormainideaControllingidea(s)tomakeaspecificcommentaboutthetopic,whichindicateswhattherestoftheparagraphwillsayaboutthetopicConveniencefoodsareeasytoprepare.ThenativefoodsofAmerica’simmigrantpopulationarereflectedinAmericancookingtopiccontrollingideatopicControllingideasII.TheTwoPartsofaTopicSentenceEXERCISES1.Circlethetopicandunderlinethecontrollingideaineachofthefollowingsentences.Drivingonfreewaysrequiresnervesofsteel.(2)Drivingonfreewaysrequiresanaggressiveattitude.(3)TheCaribbean(加勒比海的

)islandofTrinidad特立尼达岛

attractstouristsbecauseofitscalypso（荷马《奥德赛》中的海中女神)music.II.TheTwoPartsofaTopicSentence(4)SpectacularbeachesmakePuertoRicoatouristparadise.(5)LivinginanAmericancollegedormitorycanbeastressfulexperiencefornewlyarrivedinternationalstudents.(6)Manyreligiousrulesdevelopedfromthehealthneedsofancienttimes.II.TheTwoPartsofaTopicSentenceWritingtopicsentence1.Atopicsentenceshouldbeneithertoogeneralnortoospecific.Toogeneral:

Americanfood

isterrible.Toospecific:

Americanfoodistastelessandgreasy

becauseAmericansusetoomanycanned,frozen,andprepackagedfoods

and

becauseeverythingisfriedinoilorbutter.Good:

Americanfood

istastelessandgreasy.(油腻的

)II.TheTwoPartsofaTopicSentence2.Donotinclude

toomanyunrelatedideas

inyourtopicsentence;ifyoudo,yourparagraphwillnotbeunified.Toomanyideas:SanFranciscoisfamousforitstemperateclimate,itsmanytouristattractions,anditscosmopolitan世界性的

atmosphere.

(Thethreepartsofthiscontrollingideaaretoounrelatedforaparagraph.Theywouldrequirethreeseparateparagraphs.)Good:SanFranciscoisfamousforitscosmopolitanatmosphere.II.TheTwoPartsofaTopicSentence如何写扩展句段落的推展写段落的第一个步骤是写主题句。作者要对主题句在某些方面加以限制。第二个步骤将是写扩展句。例如你要陈述你选择某院校的理由，第一步，写出主题句：TherearetwomainreasonswhyIhavedecidedtoattendBingstonUniversitynextyear．第二步，以数个理由扩展你的主题：示范段落①TherearetwomainreasonswhyIhavedecidedtoattendBingstonUniversitynextyear．②Firstofall，thereisthequestionofmoney：Bingstonv'stuitionisreasonableandIdon’tevenhavetopayitallatonce．③Thisisveryimportant，sincemyfatherisnotarichman．④WithBingston's“deferredpaymentplan，”myfatherwillbeabletopaymytuitionwithouttoomuchdifficulty．⑤ThesecondreasonisthefineeducationwhichIfeedwillreceivethereinagriculture，mychosenfield．⑥Itisawell-knownfactthatBingstonhiresonlythefinestprofessorsinitsAgricultureDepartment．⑦Moreover，theuniversityrequiresallagriculturalstudentstogetpracticalexperiencebyworkingonfarmsintheareawhiletheyarestillgoingtoschool．细节：twomainreasons：理由

1—financialconsideration②a．reasonabletuition③b．deferredpaymentplan④理由

2—qualityofeducation⑤a．fineteachers③b．practicalexperience⑦在两个主要理由之下，作者用更小的细节支持它们。由此可见，段落的扩展依赖于支持主题句的细节（details）。推展段落的方法很多。通常每个段落以一种方法为“支配方法”（thedominantmethod），必要时，可运用其它一种或数种方法作为“辅助方法”（thesupportingmethod）。上面的示范段落使用因果法（cause-and-effect）作为支配方法，分类法（divisionandclassification）作为辅助方法。作者还运用了“重要性排列顺序”（theorderofimportance）作为安排细节、组织段落的手段。我们将在以下各单元逐个讨论这些方法。示范段落分析III.TheConcludingSentenceItsignalstheendoftheparagraph.Itsummarizesthemainpointsoftheparagraph.3.Itgivesafinalcommentonthetopicandleavesthereaderwiththemostimportantideastothinkabout.

Usetheend-of-paragraphsignaltointroduceyourconcludingsentence.Aconcludingsentenceisnotabsolutelynecessary;infact,aconcludingsentenceisnotcustomaryforeveryparagraphinamulti-paragraphessay.However,forsingleparagraphs,especiallylongones,aconcludingsentenceishelpfulbecause

Synonyms,wordsthathavethesamebasicmeaning,donotalwayshavethesameemotionalmeaning.Forexample,thewordsstingyandfrugalbothmean“carefulwithmoney.”However,tocallapersonstingyisaninsult,whilethewordfrugalhasamuchmorepositiveconnotation.Similarly,apersonwantstobeslenderbutnotskinny,andaggressivebutnotpushy.Therefore,youshouldbecarefulinchoosingwordsbecausemanysocalledsynonymsarenotreallysynonymousatall.Model1:Theconcludingsentencerepeatsthemainideaofthetopicsentenceindifferentwords.TopicSentenceConcludingSentenceIII.TheConcludingSentenceModel2:theconcludingsentencesummarizesthetwomainpointsoftheparagraphGold

Gold,apreciousmetal,isprizedfortwoimportantcharacteristics.Firstofall,goldhasalustrousbeautythatisresistanttocorrosion.Therefore,itissuitableforjewelry,coins,andornamentalpurposes.Goldneverneedstobepolishedandwillremainbeautifulforever.Forexample,aMacedoniancoinremainsasuntarnishedtodayasthedayitwasminted铸币

twenty-threecenturiesago.Anotherimportantcharacteristicofgoldisitsusefulnesstoindustryandscience.Formanyyears,ithasbeenusedTopicSentenceinhundredsofindustrialapplications.Themostrecentuseofgoldisinastronauts’suits.Astronautsweargold-platedheatshieldsforprotectionoutsidespaceships.Inconclusion,goldistreasurednotonlyforitsbeautybutalsoforitsutility.ConcludingSentenceIII.TheConcludingSentenceChapterThreeTheParagraphUnityCoherence1.Pretest Readthefollowingparagraphsanddeterminewhethertheyaregoodparagraphsornot.Locatethetopicsentenceofeachparagraphandfindoutthesentence(s)irrelevanttothetopicIV.Unity

Adventuretravelisthehottrendinthetourismindustry.OrdinarypeoplearenolongercontenttospendtheirtwoweeksawayfromtheofficerestingonasunnybeachinHawaii.Moreandmoreoften,theyarechoosingtospendtheirvacationsraftingdownwildrivers,hikingthroughsteamyrainforests,climbingtheworld’shighestmountains,ortraversingslipperyglaciers冰河

.Peopleofallagesarechoosingeducationalstudytoursfortheirvacations.IV.UnityDaredevilsportsarealsobecomingpopular.Youngpeopleespeciallyareincreasinglywillingtorisklifeandlimbwhilemountainbiking,backcountrysnowboarding,orhigh-speedskateboarding.SoccerisalsobecomingpopularintheUnitedStates,whereitwasnotwellknownuntilrecently.Oneoftheriskiestnewsportsisskycurfing,inwhichpeoplejumpputofairplaneswithgraphiteboardsattachedtotheirfeet.Skysurfingrivalsskydivingandbungeejumpingfortheamountofthrills—andrisk.IV.UnityUnitymeansthatonlyonemainideaisdiscussedinaparagraph.Forexample,ifyourparagraphisaboutthe

advantagesofowningacompactcar,discussonlythat.Donotdiscussthedisadvantages.Furthermore,itisagoodideaforbeginningacademicwriterstodiscussonlyoneadvantage,suchasgaseconomy,ineachparagraph.Ifyoubegintodiscussanotheradvantage,startanewparagraph.Sometimesitispossibletodiscusstwooreventhreeaspectsofthesameideainoneparagraphiftheyarecloselyrelatedtoeachother.IV.Unity2.ImportantPointsofUnityThesecondpartofunityisthateverysupportingsentencemustdirectlyexplainorprovethemainideathatisstatedinthetopicsentence.Donotincludeanyinformationthatdoesnotdirectlysupportthetopicsentence.Sometimesstudentswritesupportingsentencesthatare“offthetopic”.Thesearecalledirrelevantsentences.IV.UnityCoherencemeansbeingconnectednaturallyandlogicallybyacommonprinciple.Agoodparagraphmustbecoherent,thatis,themovementfromonesentencetothenextmustbelogicalandsmooth.Englishismainlyasyntheticlanguage,whichemphasizesthecoherenceinformbyusingtransitionsignals,whileChineseismainlyananalyticallanguage,inwhichcoherenceisachievedmainlybymeaningthroughthecontextratherthanbytransitionsignals.Therefore,acoherentChineseparagraph,iftranslatedliterallyintoEnglish,wouldseemquiteincoherent.V.Coherencethreewaystoachievecoherence1.Repeatingkeynouns.2.Usingpronounsthatreferbacktokeynouns.3.Usingtransitionsignals.V.Coherence3.RepetitionofKeyNounsAcommonwaytoachievecoherenceistorepeatkeynounsfrequentlyinyourparagraph.Thereisgenerallynofixedruleabouthowoftentorepeatkeynounsorwhentosubstitutepronouns.Attheveryleast,youneedtorepeatakeynouninsteadofusingapronounwhenthemeaningisnotclear.Lookatthemodelparagraphaboutoldtoseehowitusesthistechniquetoachievecoherence.Thekeynouninthefollowingparagraphisgold.Circletheword“gold”andallpronounsthatrefertoit.V.CoherenceModel1:ParagraphwithCoherence

Gold,apreciousmetal,isprizedfortwoimportantcharacteristics.Firstofall,goldhasalustrousbeautythatisresistanttocorrosion.Therefore,itissuitableforjewelry,coins,andornamentalpurposes.Goldneverneedstobepolishedandwillremainbeautifulforever.Forexample,aMacedoniancoinremainsasuntarnishedtodayasthedayitwasminted23centuriesago.Anotherimportantcharacteristicofgoldisitsusefulnesstoindustryandscience.Formanyyears,ithasbeenusedinhundredsofindustrialapplications.Themostrecentuseofgoldisinastronauts’ssuits.Astronautsweargold-platedheatshieldsforprotectionoutsidespaceships.Inconclusion,goldistreasurednotonlyforitsbeautybutalsoforitsutility.Gold,apreciousmetal,isprizedfortwoimportantcharacteristics.Firstofall,goldhasalustrousbeautythatisresistanttocorrosion.Therefore,itissuitableforjewelry,coins,andornamentalpurposes.Goldneverneedstobepolishedandwillremainbeautifulforever.Forexample,aMacedoniancoinremainsasuntarnishedtodayasthedayitwasminted23centuriesago.Anotherimportantcharacteristicofgoldisitsusefulnesstoindustryandscience.Formanyyears,ithasbeenusedinhundredsofindustrialapplications.Themostrecentuseofgoldisinastronauts’ssuits.Astronautsweargold-platedheatshieldsforprotectionoutsidespaceships.Inconclusion,goldistreasurednotonlyforitsbeautybutalsoforitsutility.model2:

Gold

(withoutcoherence)itItofitsmadefromititV.Coherence5.TransitionTransitionsaresignalsusedtoshowthepreciserelationshipbetweenideas.GoSlowStopsimilarideasimilarly,moreoverfurthermoreinadditionoppositeideaontheotherhandhoweverincontrastexampleresultconclusionforexampleasaresultinconclusionconclusion

:inconclusionYoushouldnotuseatransitionsignalinfrontofeverysentenceinaparagraph.Usingtoomanytransitionsignalscanbejustasconfusingasusingtoofew.However,goodwritingrequiresthatyouuseenoughtransitionsignalstomakecleartherelationshipsamongyourideas.V.Coherence6.TypesofTransitionSignalsTransitionalsignalscanbecategorizedintothreegroupsbygrammaticalfunction.Thethreegroupsare:

SentenceConnectorsTransitionPhrasesConjunctiveAdverbsOthersClauseConnectorsCoordinatingConjunctionsSubordinatingConjunctionsAmixedgroupV.CoherenceV.Coherence6-1SentenceConnectors6-1-1TransitionPhrasesUsuallyappearatthebeginningofsentences.Alsoappearinthemiddleorattheendofsentences.Alwaysbeseparatedfromtherestbycommas.Forexample,theBalticSeainNorthernEuropeisonlyone-fourthassalineastheRedSeaintheMiddleEast.TheBalticSeainNorthernEurope,forexample,isonlyone-fourthassalineastheRedSeaintheMiddleEast.TheBalticSeainNorthernEuropeisonlyone-fourthassalineastheRedSeaintheMiddleEast,forexample.V.Coherence6-1-2ConjunctiveAdverbsAppearatthebeginning,inthemiddleorattheendofsentences,separatedbycommas(excepttoo).Furthermore,therunoffcreatedbymeltingsnowaddsaconsiderableamountoffreshwatertodilutethesalineseawater.Therunoffcreatedbymeltingsnow,furthermore,addsaconsiderableamountoffreshwatertodilutethesalineseawater.Myparentswantmetobecomeanengineer,however.V.CoherenceConjunctiveAdverbsAlsousedwithasemicolonandacommatojointwoindependentclausestoformacompoundsentence.Inwarmclimates,waterevaporatesrapidly;

therefore,

theconcentrationofsaltisgreater.Thecompany’ssalesincreasedlastyear;

nevertheless,itsnetprofitdeclined.Mosttransitionphrasesfollowthispattern.SomeEnglishwordsdonothaveexactequivalentsinotherlanguages;

forexample,thereisnoGermanwordfortheadjectivefair,asinfairplay.YetandButAnoppositeideaiscoming.yet=nevertheless

anunexpectedorsurprisingcontrastbut=howeveradirectoppositeThomasEdisondroppedoutofschoolatagetwelve,

yethebecameafamousinventor.Iwanttostudyart,

butmyparentswantmetobecomeanengineer.V.Coherence6-2ClauseConnectors6-2-1CoordinatingConjunctions:

For,

And

,Nor,But,Or,Yet,

So

(FANBOYS)Usedwithacommatojointwoindependentclausestoformacompoundsentence.Inwarmclimates,waterevaporatesrapidly,

sotheconcentrationofsaltisgreater.Thecompany’ssalesincreasedlastyear,

yetitsnetprofitdeclined.V.CoherenceV.Coherence6-2-2SubordinatingConjunctions:

although,

though,

even

though,whereas,while,

if

,

unless,because,when,

sothatIntroduceadependentclause,whichisjoinedtoanindependentclausetoformacomplexsentence.Useacommaifthedependentclausecomesbeforetheindependentone.Althoughthecompany’ssalesincreasedlastyear,

itsnetprofitdeclined.Iftheindependentclausecomesfirst,donotuseacomma.Thecompany’snetprofitdeclinedlastyearalthoughitssalesincreased.

常用的转换词语类型（TypesofCommonlyUsedTransitionalWordsorPhrases）1）Listing列举first，second，thirdfirstly，secondly，thirdlyfirst，furthermore，finallyinthefirstplace，inthesecondplace，finallylastbutnotleastfirstandmostimportanttobeginwith，next，then，finallytheformer…thelatterthefirststep，thesecondstep，thenextstep2）Illustrating（givingexamples）说明（举例）forexample（f．e．）

includingforinstance（i．d．）

mainlynamely

suchas3）Emphasizing强调obviously

certainlyundoubtedly

especiallysurely

above

allindeed

most

importantof

allin

factmost

importantlyvery

likely4）Paralleling并列or

,thatis，that'stosay

,notonly…but（also）and

,inotherwords

,both…and

,aswellasneither…nor

either…or5）Adding补充also（too）

again

furthermorefurther

moreover

whatismorethen

inaddition

besidesas

well（as）6）ComparisonandContrast比较与对照comparatives：thesame…as；besimilarto；and…．，too；（比较连接词）and…so…；not…and…not…，either；not…neither…；both…and…；neither…nor…；Justas…，so…；resemble；have…incommon；Therearesimilaritiesbetween…and…inthesameway；equallyimportant；similarlyContrastives：be…adj．/adv．+er…than；more…than…；（对照连接词）less…than…；notso…as；Unlike…/Contraryto…/Asopposedto…；Although/Whereas/While；contrastwith/differfrom/bedifferentfrom；however/ontheotherhand/incontrast7）Time时间now

inthepast

untilsoon

recently

afterawhilelater

nowadays

notlongafterthen

while

inthemeantimebefore

since

meanwhile8）SpaceOrder空间underthetable

inthedistanceonthehilltop

acrosstheriverinfrontoftheroom

nexttothedoorinthebackoftheroom

onthefrontwallonthetenthfloor

alongthestreetnearby

farawayinsidethehouse

outsidetheschoolbehindthecupboard

bythewindowroundthecorner

ontheoppositesideofthestreetatthefootofthemountain

atthebottomofthesea9）CauseandEffect因果since

so…that…because

thusbecauseofthis/that

hencebecauseofthefactthat

thereforeasaresult

accordinglyasaresultof

otherwisebedueto

beresponsibleforconsequently

causebeaconsequenceof

leadtoasaconsequenceof

contributetobethereasonfor

resultinfollowfrom

bringaboutresultfrom

giveriseto10）Concluding总结inconclusion

toconcludetosumup

inbriefatlast

inshortfinally11）Qualifying转折（限定）but

however

（al）thoughyet

exceptfor

neverthelessofcourse

afterall

clearlystillV.Coherence1.Choosetherighttransitionsignalthatbestshowstherelationshipbetweenthesentencesineachgroupfromthechoicesgiveninparentheses.Writethesignalinthespaceandaddpunctuationandchangecapitalletterstosmalllettersifnecessary.V.CoherenceThesamearticlesaidthatthecausesofinflationwereeasytofind___________thecureforinflationwasnotsoeasytoprescribe.(however,forex