同等学力硕士题库考语用学笔记整理

语用学定义语境理论指示语理论、预设理论会话含义理论（合作原则、新格莱斯会话含义理论、言语行为理论（起源、经典理论、间接言语行为理论）、语用与文化、礼貌原则（含脸-面理论），并能运用这些理论来分析话语和会话。Whatispragmatics?Pragmatics,anewsubfieldoflinguistics,dealswithparticularutterancesinparticularsituationsandisespeciallyconcernedwiththevariouswaysinwhichthemanysocialcontextsoflanguageperformancecaninfluenceinterpretationoTobemorespecificpragmaticsisconcernedwiththefollowingareas:Pragmaticsisthestudyofspeakermeaning.Pragmaticsisthestudyofcontextualmeaning.Pragmaticsisthestudyofhowmoregetscommunicatedthanissaid.e.g,:It’shotinhere.（pleaseopenthedoor/air-conditioner）Isthisyourpen?（canIborrowyourpen?/pickitup（request）Tomhadachicken,（ate/possessed/owned）Aboysaystoagirl“你不戴眼镜的时候很漂亮”，andthegirlimmediatelyresponds“我戴眼镜的时候一定很丑了”.---Whenwestudylanguage,weshouldpayattentiontopeople,society,notlanguageitselfonly.）ContextExample:I’vegotaflattyre.Inagarage,thismightbetakentomeanthatIneedhelp;oraddressedtoafriendwithacar,thatIneedalift;orasaresponsetoarequestforaliftfromafriendwithoutacar,thatIcannotgivehim/heralift.Typesofcontext:linguisticcontext/co-text;situationalcontext;social/culturalcontextLinguisticcontext（上下文/言语语境）:Itreferstospecificpartsofanutterance（ortext）nearoradjacenttoaunitwhichisthefocusofattention.e.g.bankusedinasentencetogetherwithwordslikesteeporovergrownhearsomebodysaythatshehastogettothebanktocashacheckSituationalContext/physicalcontext。情景语境）e.g.bankIfyouseethewordBANKonthewallofabuildinginacity,the“physical”locationwillinfluenceyourinterpretation.fM.A.KHalliday’stheorycontextofsituationField（语场）:whatthelanguageisbeingusedtotalkabout;tenor（超语言的，extralinguistic）:therolerelationshipsbetweentheparticipants;mode:therolelanguageisplayingintheinteractionSocial/culturalContext（约定俗成）e.g.AFairyTale打招呼：英语（HOWAREYOU?）汉语（你吃了吗？）Deixis（指示语理论）Deixisisatechnicaltermwhichmeans“pointing”vialanguage.Themeaningofdeicticexpressionscannotbecapturedbytruth-conditionalsemantics,andtheirinterpretationmustdependonanalysisofthecontextofutteranceinwhichtheyoccur.MainPointsDeixisdirectlyconcernstherelationshipbetweenthestructureoflanguageandthecontextinwhichitisused.Deicticexpressions（指示/别语）orsimplydeicticsrefertocertainaspectsoftheircontextofutterances,includingtheroleofparticipantsinthespeecheventandtheirspatio-temporal（空间-时间）andsociallocation.Fiveclassesofdeixisarepresentlyrecognized,namelypersondeixis（人称指示），placedeixis,timedeixis,discoursedeixisandsocialdeixis.Twousesofdeictics：GesturalusesTheuseofdeicticstogetherwithparalinguistic（副语言特征，除语言以夕卜的，non-verballinguistic）featuresiscalledthegesturaluse,（e.g.:eyecontact）e.g.He'snotthepresident.Heis.He'sthesecretary.Putthepianohere.No,nothere,buthere.SymbolicusesTheuseofdeicticswithoutparalinguisticfeaturesiscalledthesymbolicuse.e.g.Thiscityishighlycongested.Wecan'taffordaholidayabroadthisyear.（exophoricreference）TypesofdeixisfPersondeixisPersonalpronounsUnmarked（无标记的，standard,normal,basic）usesvs.markeduses（特殊用法）Vocatives（称呼语）e.g.“Doyouunderstand?”---（You:listener/hearer;alsosomeotherpeople.）“你看电视好好的，他却把电视给关了”---这里的你，指说话人.“我们年青人应该多学点知识”---老师讲给学生，我们指的是你们.fTimedeixisTimeadverbials:now,then,today,inthreeminutes,twodaysago,etc.Unitsoftime:morning,week,month,etc.Tense:Note:calendar-timeexpressions（e.g.May6,1987）arenotconsidereddeictic.fPlacedeixisHere,thereThis,thatCome,go;bring,takefDiscourse（话语/语篇）deixisThis,thatBut,therefore,inconclusion,tothecontrary,besides,etc.Thelastparagraph,thenextsentence,thefollowingsection,thepreviouswords,etc.fSocialdeixisSocialdeixisistheuseofdeictictermsforindicatingsocialstatusoftheparticipantsinadiscourse,andtheirrelationsdeterminedthereupon.Honorifics(敬称).tuvs.vousduvs.Sie你vs.您★PresuppositionWhatispresupposition?Apresuppositionissomethingthespeakerassumestobethecasepriortomakinganutterance.Presuppositionsareinferencesaboutwhatisassumedtobetrueintheutteranceratherthandirectlyassertedtobetrue(Peccei,J.1999).e.g.Mary’sbrotherboughtthreehorses.Inproducingtheaboveutterance,thespeakerwillnormallybeexpectedtohavethepresuppositionsthatapersoncalledMaryexists;shehasabrother;ConstancyundernegationBasically,itmeansthatthepresuppositionofastatementwillremainconstant(i.e.stilltrue)evenwhenthatstatementisnegated.e.g.Mary’sdogiscutepresupposesthatMaryhasadog.Mary’sdogisn’tcutealsopresupposesthatMaryhasadog.Presuppositionvs.entailmente.g.Johnmanagedtostopintime.Fromtheexamplewecaninfer:Johnstoppedintime.Johntriedtostopintime.Nowtakethenegationoftheexample:Johndidn’tmanagetostopintime.Fromthiswecannotinfer“Johnstoppedintime.”，yettheinferenceto“Johntriedtostopintime.”ispreservedandthussharedbytheexamplesentenceanditsnegativeform.Onthebasisofthenegationtest,weidentifythatthepresuppositionofboththeexamplesentenceanditsnegativeformis“Johntriedtostopintime.”，butnot“Johnstoppedintime.”.Clearly,theexamplesentenceentails“Johnstoppedintime.”,butitsnegativeformdoesnotentailit.Negationaltersasentence’sentailment,butitleavesthepresuppositionsuntouched.AstatementApresupposesanotherstatementBiff:ifAistrue,thenBistrue.ifAisfalse,thenBistrue.e.g.Johnismarried.Johnexists.Johnisnotmarried.Johnexists.AstatementAentailsanotherstatementBiff:ifAistrue,thenBistrue.ifAisfalse,thenBmayormaynotbetrue.e.g.1)Thatpersonisabachelor.Thatpersonisaman.2)Thatpersonisnotabachelor.Thatpersoncanbeamanorawoman.TypesofpresuppositionExistentialpresuppositionFactivepresuppositionLexicalpresuppositionStructuralpresuppositionsNon-factivepresuppositionCounter-factualpresuppositionTypeExamplePresuppositionExistentialtheX>>XexistsFactiveIregretleaving>>IleftNon-factiveHepretendedtobehappy>>Hewasn’thappyLexicalHemanagedtoescape>>HetriedtoescapeStructuralWhendidshedie?>>ShediedCounterfactualIfIweren’till,>>IamillApropertyofpresuppositionDefeasibility（可撤消性）:Insomecontexts,apresuppositionisdefeasible.Linguisticfactorse.g.Johndidn'tmanagetopasstheexam.>>Johntriedtopasstheexam.Butifutteredinthecontext,Johndidn'tmanagetopasstheexam.Infacthedidn'teventryto.Addonemoresentence,thentheoriginalpresuppositioniscancelledbytheutterance“Infacthedidn’teventryto”.Non-linguisticfactorse.g.Shecriedbeforeshefinishedwritingthenovel.>>Shefinishedwritingthenovel.Butintheutterance,Shediedbeforeshefinishedwritingthenovel.thepresuppositionShefinishedwritingthenoveliscancelledbythecommonsenseknowledgethatifsomeonedies,hecannotwritenovelsanymore.Theprojectionproblem（投射问题）:Thepresuppositionsofcomplexsentencesarenotequaltothecombinationofthepresuppositionsofallthesentences.（整体不等于部分之和）★ConversationalimplicatureMainpoints:TheimportantpointmadebyGriceregardingthetheoryofimplicatureisthedistinctionbetweenwhatissaidandwhatisimplicated.TheCooperativePrincipleisverycommonnotonlyinverbalcommunicationbutalsoinalmostallhumaninteractions,anditisfollowedreasonably,notcompulsorily.ConversationalimplicaturesWhatthehearerinfersfromtheutterancethatisnotopenlystated.ConversationalimplicatureisbasedontheCooperativePrinciple.InGrice’sanalysis,thespeaker’sfloutingofamaximcombinedwiththehearer’sassumptionthatthespeakerhasnotreallyabandonedtheco-operativeprincipleleadstoanimplicature.Generally,conversationalimplicaturescanbedividedintotwokinds:generalizedandparticularized.ThecooperativeprincipleMakeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthespeechexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.CPconsistsoffourspecificmaxims.fQuantityMakeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.fQualityTrytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.fRelationBerelevant.fMannerBeperspicuousAvoidobscurityofexpression.Avoidambiguity.Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).Beorderly.◊Themaximsofthecooperativeprinciplecanbeusedtodescribehowparticipantsinaconversationderiveimplicatures.Gricegivesthefollowingexample.AisstandingbyanobviouslyimmobilizedcarandisapproachedbyB.Thefollowingexchangetakesplace.A:Iamoutofpetrol.B:Thereisagarageroundthecorner.AcandeducefromB’sreactionthatBmeansthatthereisagaragearoundthecornerthatisopenandsellsgasoline.B,however,hasnotmentionedthesefacts.Acanonlymaketheseassumptionsifs/heassumesthatBisactinginaccordancewiththecooperativeprincipleandisadheringtothemaximofrelevance.◊Featuresofconversationalimplicatures:cancellability(canbecancelled)non-detachability(wecanchangetheform,butthemeaningdoesn’tchange,sotheimplicaturedoesn’tchange.)e.g.a-dsaidironicallywillallimplicateeJohnisagenius.Johnisamentalprodigy.Johnisanenormousintellect.Johnisabigbrain.Johnisanidiot.Calculability可推导性(从字面意思通过合作原则可推导出来)non-conventionalityAconversationalimplicatureistheaddingupoftheconventionalmeaningandthecontextinwhichitisused.Whenthecontextchanges,theimplicaturewillchangeorbelost.e.g.Itiscoldhere.Thesentencemay,inonecontext,generateanimplicaturelike“Closethewindow”，but,inanothercontext,ifitissaidbetweentwosmallboysintheopen,therewillbenosuchimplicature.Sotheimplicatureisnotconventional.indeterminacy(不确定性)Thisreferstothefactanexpressionwithasinglemeaningcanproducedifferentimplicaturesasthecontextsandparticipantsvary.e.g.Heisanox.Ifthesentenceissaidbyhissuperiorinpraisinghim,itwillimplythatheistoughandhardworking,whileinanothercontextitmaymeanthatheismild,butstubborn:“stubbornasanox”orstupid:“dumbox”.★Speechacttheory:toanalyzephilosophicalproblemsbylookingatordinarylanguageandtryingtoascertainwhatinsightsitcouldofferintoreality.◊Thereisastrikingdifferencebetweenthefollowingtwosentences:e.g.It'sraining.IpromisethatIwillgiveyouonehundreddollarstomorrow.In(1)astatementismadethatmayormaynotbetrue.Asfor(2),however,itisnotpossibletosaythatitistrueorthatitisnottrue.Withverbssuchas‘promise’(inthefirstperson),somethingisnotonlybeingsaid;moreimportantly,somethingisbeingdone.In(2)anactisbeingperformedintheformofanutterance.Bysaying‘Ipromise...’，apromiseismade.Butsaying‘It’sraining’doesnotmakeitrain.Austinusedtheterms'constative’and‘jerformative’todescribethisdifference.Inconstatives,suchas(1),somethingissaidaboutreality;inperformatives,suchas(2),anactisperformedbytheutteranceitself.Austinwasnot,however,successfulinestablishingcriteriafordescribingthedifferencebetweenthesetwoconcepts.Itcan,afterall,bearguedthatanactisbeingperformedinthecaseofconstativeutterancesaswell;anindirectrequest(arequesttothehearertohandthespeakerherumbrella)madeorastatement(factualassertionabouttheworld)madeasinthecaseof(1)◊fInrecognitionofthefactthatutterancescanbothmakepropositionsandperformactions,Austincametotheconclusionthatallexpressionsoflanguagemustbeviewedasacts.Hedistinguishedthreekindsofactionwithineachutterance.First,thereisthe'locution'(言内之意)，thephysicalactofproducinganutterance.Second,thereisthe'illocution'(言夕卜之意)，theactwhichiscommittedbyproducinganutterance:byutteringathreat,athreatismade;byutteringanapology,anapologyismade.Third,thereisthe‘perlocution\(言后之意)theproductionofaneffectthroughlocutionandillocution,forinstance,theexecutionofanorderbythehearer.e.g.It’shotinhere.(indirectspeech)totellthefact.('locution’)toletyouunderstandyouneedturnontheair-conditioner.('illocution’)YoufinallydoitasIwished(‘perlocution’)Inspeechacttheory,theillocutionisthefocusofattention.Certainminimumrequirementsmustbemetifanillocutionistobesuccessful.TheAmericanphilosopherJohnSearleformulatedfour‘felicityconditions7whichillocutionsmustmeet.Thesefourconditionswillbeillustratedusingtheillocution‘topromise7.Felicity(合适的)conditionsforthespeechact‘topromise7(每一句话都将其视为言语行为，都可以通过这四个方面来进行分析)propositionalcontentconditionSpredicatessomefutureactAofS.preparatoryconditionSbelievesthatAisinHSbestinterestandthatScandoA.sincerityconditionSintendstodoA.essentialconditionSputsSunderanobligationtoHtodoA.Note:S:speaker;A:act;H:hearer.◊Howdoesspeechacttheorycontributetothestudyofdiscourse?First,itcanprovideinsightsintotherequirementswhichtheproductionofaform(thelocution)mustmeettoensurethattheillocutiontakesplace.Thisillocutionservesasaprerequisitefortheachievementoftheintendedperlocution.Second,thistheorycanserveasaframeworkforindicatingwhatisrequiredinordertodeterminetherelationshipbetweenformandfunction,betweenlocutionandillocution.Belowisanexampleintheformofaninterrogative.g.Canyoustopbyinaminute?Whyisthisinterrogativegenerallyinterpretedasarequest?Arequestcanbeidentifiedbythefollowingfelicityconditions:FelicityconditionsforrequestspropositionalcontentconditionThecontentmustrefertoafutureact,x,whichistobecarriedoutbythehearer.preparatoryconditi(rnTheheareriscapableofexecutingxandthespeakerbelievesthattheheareriscapableofdoingit.Itisobvioustobothconversationalparticipantsthatthehearerwillnotperformtheactwithoutbeingasked.sincerityconditionThespeakeractuallywantsthehearertodowhathasbeenrequested.essentialconditionTheutteranceservesasanattempttopersuadethehearertoexecutex.Inthiscase,thesituationisnotself-explanatoryandknowledgeofthesurroundingenvironmentisrequired.★PolitenessstrategiesThecooperativeprincipleisvalidforinformativelanguageuse.Languageusersarenothowever,alwaysinterestedintheeffectivetransferofinformation.Inthefollowingexamplesthespeakerwantsthehearertoclosethedoor.(15a)Closethedoor.(15b)There'sadraft.(15c)Wouldyouclosethedoor?(15d)Wouldyoubesokindastoclosethedoor?Accordingtothemaximsofthecooperativeprinciple,(15a)issufficient.Languageis,however,oftenusedmoreindirectly,asisdonein(15b).Theyalsosometimesusecertainpolitenessformssuchasin(15c)and(15d).ErvingGoffman,Americansocialpsychologist,introducedtheconceptof‘face7.Bythishemeanttheimagethatapersonprojectsinhissocialcontactswithothers.Facehasthemeaningasinthesaying‘toloseface’.InGoffman7sopinion,everyparticipantinthesocialprocesshastheneedtobeappreciatedbyothersandtheneedtobefreeandnotinterferedwith.Goffmancallstheneedtobeappreciated‘positiveface’andtheneednottobedisturbed‘negativeface’.Goffmanwantedsocialinteraction,whichincludesverbalcommunication,tobestudiedfromtheperspectivethatparticipantsarestrivingforstabilityintheirrelationshipswithothers.Participantsinconversationsshould,therefore,notviolateoneanother’sface.Refusingarequestorreproachingsomeoneareactionswhichcanformathreattotheother’spositiveornegativeface.Inthecaseof‘facethreateningacts’(FTA),somethingisneededwhichwillreducetheviolationoffacetoaminimumandthereforepreservestabilityasmuchaspossible.Thiscanbeachievedbyusing‘faceworktechniques9.---Usingstrategies“faceworktechniques”tosolvetheproblemscausedby‘facethreateningacts’(FTA).Howdoespolitenessfitintothisapproach?OPolitenesspreventsorrepairsthedamagecausedbyFTAs.Thegreaterthethreattostability,themorepoliteness,faceworktechnique,isnecessary.Justastherearetwotypesofface,therearetwotypesofpoliteness.Faceworkthatisaimedatpositivefaceiscalled‘solidaritypoliteness',whilefaceworkthatdealswithnegativefaceisknownas‘respectpoliteness".Belowareafewexamples.Whenapersonnelmanagerhastoturndownajobapplicantwhoshouldnothaveappliedinthefirstplaceowingtoalackofeducation,thisisanFTAwhichthreatensthepositivefaceoftheapplicant.Forthisreasonthepersonnelmanagerwillbemoreapttowrite(16b)than(16a).(16a)Wedonotunderstandwhyyoubotheredtoapply..(16b)Wehavesomedoubtsconcerningyourprioreducation.Inthefollowinginteractionbetweenaninstructorandastudentattheendofatutoringsession,thesecondvariantismorepoliteasitislessdamagingtotheinstructor'sfaceandthatofthestudent.(17)A:Ifvetriedtoexplainthisasclearlyaspossible.NowIhavetoleaveasIhaveanotherappointment.Ihopethatthehomeworkwillbeeasiernexttime.B:(a)Istilldon'tunderstandthematerial.(b)Ifproblemsshouldarise,isitallrightifIstopbytomorrow.◊possiblestrategiesfordoingFTAs1.withoutredressiveaction,baldlyOnrecord 2.positivepolitenessDotheFTA withredressiveaction3.negativepoliteness4.offrecord(donotmentionexplicitly)非公开的5.Don’tdotheFTA(non-verbalact)-thehighestrisky.Thefifthstrategyisimplementedwhentheriskofspeakingistoogreat,when,forinstance,anindividualdoesnotriskansweringanimpertinentandface-threateningquestionandsimplyremainssilent.◊Belowareexamplesofdifferentstrategiesforaskingapersonforahundreddollars.(18a)Hey,lendmeahundreddollars.(baldly)(18b)Hey,friend,couldyoulendmeahundredbucks?(positivepoliteness)(18c)I'm sorryIhavetoask,butcouldyoulendmeahundreddollars?(negativepoliteness)(18d)Ohno,I'moutofcash!Iforgottogotothebanktoday.(offrecord)Thestrategiesarenumberedaccordingtotheirdegreeofpoliteness,(Strategy5isleftoutofconsideration.)IftheWofaFTAishigh,thespeakerwillchooseastrategywithahighernumber.Thisexplainswhygraveaccusationsorinconvenientrequestsareoftenformulatedindirectly(strategy4).Thefollowingquestionisanexampleofanindirectrequest.Areyoudoinganythingspecialtonight?Theformofthisutterancemakesitclearthatthisisaninquiryaboutanindividual’splannedactivities.Thisquestioncan,however,alsobeaninvitationonthepartofthespeakertothehearertogoouttogether.Howcanaquestioninthisformhaveanentirelydifferentfunction?AccordingtoLevinson(1983),theansweristhatinsomecasesspeakersfirstmakeapre-requestinordertofindoutwhethertheywillgetapositiveresponsetotheirrequest.Levinsondescribesthisinanunderlyingstructureconsistingoffourpositions.Belowisanexampleandtheunderlyingstructure.A:(1)Areyoudoinganythingspecialtonight?B:(2)No,notreally.Why?A:(3)Well,Iwantedtoaskifyouwouldliketogoouttodinnerwithme.B:(4)I'dloveto.Theunderlyingstructureof(20):Pre-request‘Goahead'reactionRequestConsentGoffman’sworkon‘face’offersanexplanationforthepre-requestphenomenon.IfBhadgivenanevasiveanswertothepre-request,thenthatwouldhaveeliminatedthenecessityofmakingthemainrequest,preventingthelossoffaceofeitherparticipant.AdoesnothavetodealwitharefusalandBdoesnothavetorefusetherequestinadirectmanner;afterthepre-request,Bcanclaimtobeextremelybusywhichwillsoftentheblowoftherefusal.Indirectrequestshavecertainsimilaritieswithpre-requestsinthatbothareattemptstoascertainwhetherornottherearegroundsforrefusingadirectrequest.Considerthefollowingexample.Acustomerwalksintoashoestoreandasks:Doyouselljoggingshoes?Thisquestionisactuallyapreliminarychecktoseeifthesalesclerkwillbeabletogiveanaffirmativeresponsetoarequesttoseeanassortmentofjoggingshoes.InLevinson’sopinion,indirectrequestscanbeviewedaspre-requestsinanunderlyingstructureconsistingoffourpositions.A:(1)Doyouselljoggingshoe