大学一年级化学与材料导论课件

ABriefIntroductionto

ModernChemistryHansongChengTableofContentsChapter1.FundamentalsChapter2.TheFoundationofModernChemistryChapter3.StatesofMatterChapter4.Chemistry,ChemicalEngineeringandMaterialsScienceChapter5.FrontiersChapter1.FundamentalsChemistry:ACoreScienceChemistryandphysics(physicalsciences)Chemistryandbiology(lifescience)Chemistryandmaterials(materialsscience)Chemistryandchemicalengineering(engineeringscience)ChemistryandnanotechnologyChemistryandenvironmentalscienceScienceandScientists"Scientists,contrarytothemyththattheythemselvespubliclypromulgate,areemotionalhumanbeingswhocarryagenerousdoseofsubjectivitywiththemintothesupposedly'objectivesearchforTheTruth'.…Theanonymousaphorism,'Iwouldn'thaveseenitifIhadn'tbelievedit'isacontinuingtruthinscience.Andofcourse,itcutstwoways:youoftenseewhatyouexpecttoseeandnotwhatyoudon't."

Science:objectiveScientists:subjectiveSciencewriterandEvolutionistRogerLewin:ScienceLearningandScientificResearchClassroomlearning:PassiveLearningwhathasbeenalreadydiscoveredKnowledgebuildingScientificresearch:ProactiveDiscoveryofunknownsExperiencebuildingScienceandScientificMethodsEmpiricalobservationsIdentificationofkeyissuesBackgroundsearchEstablishmentofascientificmodelIdentifythekeycharacteristicphenomenaSimplifythemodelbyeliminatingunimportantcharacteristicsanddefiningthelimitofthemodelScientificproofs(experiments)MechanismsCommunicationsInteractingwitheachotherPresentationsScientificEthicsHonestyinreportingofscientificdata;Carefultranscriptionandanalysisofscientificresultstoavoiderror;Independentanalysisandinterpretationofresultsbasedondataandnotontheinfluenceofexternalsources;Opensharingofmethods,data,andinterpretationsthroughpublicationandpresentation;Sufficientvalidationofresultsthroughreplicationandcollaborationwithpeers;Propercreditingofsourcesofinformation,data,andideas;Moralobligationstosocietyingeneral,and,insomedisciplines,responsibilityinweighingtherightsofhumanandanimalsubjectsFrom:http:///library/module_viewer.php?mid=161ModernPhysicalSciencesTowardtheendofthe19thcenturymanyphysicistsheldthatalltheprinciplesofphysicshadbeendiscoveredNewton’smechanicshadbeenbroughttoahighdegreeofsophisticationbytheworkofLagrangeandHamiltonTheequivalenceofheatandmechanicalworkhadbeenclearlydemonstratedbyCountRumfordandJouleClassicalPhysicsThecompletedevelopmentofthermodynamicshadbeenformulatedbyGibbs,whichremainsunchangedtodayThekinetictheoryofgasesandstatisticalmechanicshadbeenrefinedtoahighdegreebyMaxwell,BoltzmannandGibbsInthefieldofoptics,theworkofYoungandFresneloninterferencephenomenahadresultedintheacceptanceofthewavetheoryoflight(Huygens)overthecorpusculartheoryoflight(Newton)QuantumMechanicsandMolecularThermodynamicsClassicalPhysicsTheunificationofoptics,electricityandmagnetismwithinMaxwell’sequationsoftheelectromagneticnatureoflightQuantumMechanicsandMolecularThermodynamicsThebodyoftheseaccomplishmentsisnowconsideredtobethedevelopmentofwhatwenowrefertoas‘classicalphysics’.ClassicalPhysicsTheDiscoveryofElectronsInthelate19thcentury,itbecamepossibletosealmetalelectrodeswithinaglasstubeandthenevacuatethetubetoverylowpressuresBeforeevacuation,anincreaseinvoltageacrosstheelectrodesresultsinasparkAsthepressureislowered,thesparkingisreplacedbyaluminousbeamSirJohnJ.ThomsonIn1897,J.J.ThomsondemonstratedthatthebeamthatleavesthecathodeconsistsofnegativelychargeddiscreteparticlesBybalancingthebeambetweenanelectricandmagneticfield,Thomsonwasabletomeasurethecharge-to-massratiooftheseparticlesThusheshowedthatanelectronwaslighterthanthelightestatomQuantumMechanicsandMolecularThermodynamicsTheDiscoveryofElectronsThisdiscoveryofasubatomicparticletogetherwiththediscoveryofX-raysbyRöentgenin1895andradioactivitybyBecquerelin1896showedthattheatomwasfarmorecomplexthanpreviouslythought.TheseriesofexperimentsthatrevolutionisedtheconceptsofphysicshadtodowiththeradiationgivenoffbymaterialbodieswhenheatedAsabodyisheatedtohigherandhighertemperaturesthereisacontinualshiftofcolourfromredthroughwhitetoblueTheexactspectrumemittedbyabodydependsontheparticularbodyitself,butanidealbody,onethatabsorbsandemitsradiationwithoutfavouringparticularfrequencies,iscalledablackbodyradiatorQuantumMechanicsandMolecularThermodynamicsBlackbodyRadiationQuantumMechanicsandMolecularThermodynamicsBlackbodyRadiationTheQuantumHypothesisThefirstpersontoofferasuccessfulexplanationofblackbodyradiationwasPlanckin1900LikeRayleighandJeans,PlanckassumedthattheradiationemittedbythebodywasduetotheoscillationsoftheelectronswithinthemediumPlanckmadetherevolutionaryQuantumMechanicsandMolecularThermodynamicsadhocassumptionthattheenergiesoftheoscillatorshadtobeproportionaltoanintegralmultipleofthefrequency,i.e.

εn=nhν,wherenisanintegerandhisaproportionalityconstantThephotoelectriceffectdiscoveredbyHertzistheejectionofelectronsfrommetallicsurfaceswhenilluminatedbyelectromagneticradiationTheexperimentaldatashowedthattheenergyoftheejectedelectronswasproportionaltothefrequencyoftheilluminatinglightThefactthattheejectionenergywasindependentofthetotalenergyofilluminationimpliedthattheinteractionmustbelikethatofaparticlewhichgivesallitsenergytotheelectronQuantumMechanicsandMolecularThermodynamicsThePhotoelectricEffectQuantumMechanicsandMolecularThermodynamicsThreeimportantresultsneedtobeexplained:Noelectronsareejected,regardlessoftheintensityoftheradiation,unlessthefrequencyexceedsathresholdvaluecharacteristicofthemetalThekineticenergyoftheejectedelectronsislinearlyproportionaltothefrequencyoftheincidentradiationbutindependentofitsintensityEvenatlowlightintensities,electronsareejectedimmediatelyifthefrequencyisabovethethresholdThePhotoelectricEffectToexplaintheseresults,EinsteinextendedPlanck’shypothesisinanimportantwayPlanckappliedtheenergyquantisationconceptΔε

=

hν,totheemissionandabsorptionmechanismofatomicelectronicoscillatorsPlanckbelievedthatoncethelightenergywasemitted,itbehavedlikeaclassicalwaveEinsteinproposedinsteadthatradiationitselfexistedassmallpacketsofenergy,ε

=

hν,whicharenowknownasphotonsThePhotoelectricEffectAlbertEinsteinQuantumMechanicsandMolecularThermodynamicsUsingconservationofenergy,thekineticenergyoftheemittedelectronsisequaltotheenergyoftheincidentradiationminustheminimumenergyrequiredtoremoveanelectronfromthesurfaceoftheparticularmetal(Φ)—theworkfunctionIfhν<Φ—noemission(satisfies1)Thekineticenergyoftheemittedelectronisproportionaltothefrequency(satisfies2)Providedhν>Φemissionwilloccurevenatlowintensity(satisfies3)ThePhotoelectricEffectTheslopeofthephotoelectricdatagivesavalueofhincloseagreementwithPlanck’svaluededucedfromblackbodyradiation.Intwoverydifferentsetsofexperiments,blackbodyradiationandthephotoelectriceffect,theverysamequantisationconstant,h,arosenaturally.ThePhotoelectricEffectOtherCrisisofClassicalPhysicsTemperaturedependentbehaviorofheatcapacitiesBohrmodelonthestructureofhydrogenatomComptonscattering(x-rayscatteringfromelectronsinacarbontarget)Scientistsalwayshadtroubledescribingthenatureoflight—isitawaveorisitaparticle?In1924,deBrogliereasonedthatiflightcanhavebothwaveandparticleproperties,whynotmatter?FromEinstein’srelativisticenergyequation,theenergyofaparticlewithzerorestmassistheproductofitsmomentumandthespeedoflight,E=pcCouplingthisequationwiththeenergyofaphoton,E

=hν,revealsthedeBrogliewavelengthrelationship,λ

=h/p,whichdeBroglieassertedheldforparticlesaswellasphotonsQuantumMechanicsandMolecularThermodynamicsWave–ParticleDualityTheconsequencesofthisrelationshiparefarreaching(theyledSchrödingertohistheoryofwavemechanics),butitsbasisinnatureisunquestionableElectrondiffractionwasobservedbyDavissonandGermer(1925)andG.P.Thomson(1927)ThewavelikepropertyofelectronsisusedinelectronmicroscopesThewavelengthsoftheelectronscanbecontrolledthroughanappliedvoltage,andthesmalldeBrogliewavelengthsofferafarmorepreciseprobethananordinarylightmicroscopeInaddition,incontrasttoelectromagneticradiationofsimilarwavelengths,theelectronbeamcanbereadilyfocusedusingelectricandmagneticfieldsQuantumMechanicsandMolecularThermodynamicsWave–ParticleDualityIn1927,ayearafterpresentinghistheoryofmatrixmechanics,Heisenbergstatedoneofthemostprovocativeideasinmodernscience—theso-calleduncertaintyprincipleTheHeisenberguncertaintyprinciplestatesthatitisnotpossibletodeterminesimultaneouslytoinfiniteprecisionofthemomentumandthepositionofaparticleInstead,theproductoftheuncertaintyinthemomentumwiththeuncertaintyinthepositionisgivenbythefollowingrelationQuantumMechanicsandMolecularThermodynamicsTheHeisenbergUncertaintyPrincipleTheuncertaintyprincipleisnotastatementabouttheinaccuracyofmeasurementinstruments,norareflectiononthequalityofexperimentalmethods;itarisesfromthewavepropertiesinherentinthequantum-mechanicaldescriptionofnatureFurther,theuncertaintyprincipleinvalidatestheBohrmodel—onecannotknowtheradiusandangularmomentumofanelectroninacircularorbitwithinfiniteprecisionQuantumMechanicsandMolecularThermodynamicsTheHeisenbergUncertaintyPrincipleChapter2.TheFoundationofModernChemistryChemistry:AtomsandMoleculesChemistrywasoriginatedfromexperimentsExplanationsonchemicalphenomenawerelargelyempiricalChemistryisascienceaboutatomsandmoleculesChemicalphenomenaaredictatedbyelectronicmotionQuantummechanicsaccuratelydescribeselectronicmotionandnuclearmotionFoundationofModernChemistryVirtually,allatoms,moleculesandchemicalprocessescanbedescribedbyquantummechanicsForheavyatoms,e.g.Au,elementsinlanthanideseries,relativistictheoryshouldalsobeusedduetothefastelectronicmotionQuantumMechanics

TheentirequantumchemistryisaboutEq.(2).Almostallthe

chemicalphenomenacanbeexplainedbysolvingthisequation.ElectronicStructureofAtoms

TheelectronicstructuresofotheratomsaresimilarbutdifferinenergylevelsandelectronoccupationElectronicStructureofAtomsTitanium(Ti)Gold(Au)MolecularOrbitalsAmolecularorbitalisalinearcombinationofatomicorbitalsoftheconstituentatomsTheelectronicenergiesofamoleculearequantizedapplicationstophotochemistry,solarcells,etc.ChemicalBondingCovalentbond:electronsaresharedbetweenatoms(notnecessarilyequal)Ionicbond:electronfromoneatomisattachedtoanotheratomCONaClMolecularInteractionsCovalentinteractions(bonds)Electrostaticinteractions(e.g.ionicbonds)Multipoleinteractions(e.g.dipole-dipole)vanderWaalsinteractions(weak)Hydrogenbondinginteractions(e.g.water)PotentialEnergySurfaceSchematicofapotentialenergylandscape.Athightemperatures(redline)thesystemisabletoovercomepotentialenergybarriersandsamplemanydifferentbasins.Anenergyminimizationisshownwiththeblackline:anequilibriumconfigurationismappedviasteepestdescenttoalocalminimumonthelandscape.MolecularStructureTheequilibriumstructurescorrespondtotheminimaofthepotentialenergysurfacesMolecularVibrationC-CStretchC-CWaveC-HStretchO-HStretchThermodynamicsMolecularinternalenergy(U)constituents:ElectronicenergyVibrationalenergyRotationalenergyTranslationalenergyEnthalpy:H=U+PVEntropy(S):ameasureofdisorderinathermodynamicsystemGibbsfreeenergy:G=H-TSChemicalKineticsArrheniusequation:thedependenceofthe

rateconstant

k

of

achemicalreaction

on

temperature

Tand

activationenergy

Ea:MolecularSpectroscopyUV/visibleIR/RamanNMRMSphotoelectronspectrum vibrationalspectrumXRDPhotoelectronspectroscopyAFM/STM/SEM/TEMChapter3.StatesofMatterStatesofMatterClassical:gasliquidsolidNon-classical:glasssuperfluid

plasmaMacroscopically,theequilibriumstatescanbedescribedbythermodynamicsandstatisticalmechanics.However,thedetailedmicroscopicprocessescanonlybedescribedbyquantummechanics.GasesIdealgasmodel:Nonidealgasmodel:vanderWaalsequationCondensedMatterSubstancesLiquids:manychemicalreactionsoccurinliquidphaseinteractionsbetweenmoleculesarestrongerthaninthegasphasemoleculesaresolvatedSolids:manycompoundsexistinsolidformsandreactionsmayoccuramongsolidmaterialsinteratomic/intermolecularinteractionsvaryClustersandNano-SizedMaterialsEvolutionofsmallclustersSolidsgraphite molecularsolid semiconductor metalClustersandNano-SizedMaterialsMolecularOrbitalsvs.EnergyBandsCH2=CH2H(CH=CH)2HH(CH=CH)3HH(CH=CH)4HH(CH=CH)2HH(CH=CH)5HH(CH=CH)6HDOS(4x4x1)non-metallic metallicprimitivecell electrondensity

differencegraphiteBandStructureFermiEnergyandFermi-DiracDistributionpuren-dopingp-dopingChapter4.Chemistry,ChemicalEngineeringandMaterialsScienceHomogeneousCatalysisProductionoffinechemicalsChiralsynthesisHeterogeneousCatalysisNOxreductionPetrochemicalrefineryHydrogenproductionBiomassreformingSemiconductorsBandgap:theenergydifferencebetweenaconductionbandandavalencebandAtypicalsemiconductorbandgapisbelow3eVThewidelyutilized

semiconductorsinclude

Si,SiC,SiN,GaAs,

Ge,InAs,etc.CopperDepositiononSiCuThinFilm:CurrentTechnologyIMDIMDPVDTaNDiffusionBarrierPVDTaGlueLayerPVDCuCopperSeedECPCuCVD:CupraSelectTMonTa(100)abinitioMD

simulation

200oC4psCupraSelectTMonTaN(111)&WN(111)TaN(111) WN(111)CuAgglomerationonTaN(111)CuAgglomerationonTaN(111)RuGlueLayerElectronDensityDifferenceTaNWNWithoutRugluelayerWithRu

gluelayerCuCuSuperconductorsAcompoundconductingelectricitywithoutresistancebelowacertaintemperature

Superconductors:Pb(7.2K)Nb3Ge(23.2K)CaSrCu2O4(110K)(Sn5In)Ba4Ca2Cu10Oy(212K)(Tl5Pb2)Ba2MgCu10O17+

(18oC,worldrecord!)magnetic-levitationMRIimagingenergystorageChemistryandEnergyMaterialsHydrocarbonreformingBiomass,coalfiregasification,municipalwastetreatmentSolarcellsEnergylevelalignmentEnergystorageLi-ionbatteriesCathode,anodeandelectrolyteFuelcellsCatalysts,electrodematerialsHydrogenstorageChemistryandEnvironmentalScienceCO2capture,sequestrationandutilizationWatertreatmentGeochemistryAtmospherescience(meteorology,greenhousegas)SustainabledevelopmentChemistryandLifeScienceBiochemistryandbiophysicsStructureofmacromolecules(proteins,DNA,etc.)DrugdiscoveryBiotechnologySynthesisofpharmaceuticalandagrichemicalproductsChemistryandNanoscienceNanosize:10-9mChemicalreactivitydifferstremendouslywithsizes(e.g.Auisinertinbulkphasebutbecomeshighlyreactiveinnanosize)NanocatalysisNanomaterialsChapter5.FrontiersCharacteristicsofModernChemicalScienceMultidisciplinary(chemistry,physics,biology,materialsscience,engineering,etc.)Fundamentalunderstandingofthestructure-propertyrelationshipDesign,discoveryandcreationofnewmoleculesandmaterialsNanotechnologyNanolasers

NanointerconnectNanoporesensorPolymer-CNTcompositeCarbonnanotubesNanocatalysisNano-sizedcatalystsaremoreactiveandmoreefficientCore-shellcatalystsTransparentConductingMaterialsOLEDFlatPanelDisplaySolarCellTouchPanelConductingpolymersMetaloxidenanoparticlesITODopedTiO2,ZnO,SnO2,etc.EffectivenanotechnologyisrequiredtodevelopthinfilmsatlowtemperatureEnergy:TheNextIndustrialRevolution

“Energyisthesinglemostimportantchallengefacinghumanitytoday.”

NobelLaureateRickSmalley April2004,TestimonytoU.S.SenateSustainabilityAsustainablescenario(overalongperiodoftime):

Supply>or=demandThisisadynamicequationToomanyfactorsaffectingtheequilibriumPopulationanditsgrowthrateWarandpeaceResourcesEnvironmentEconomyTechnologiesLifestyleTheBasisofAProsperousEconomyEssential:CapitalWelleducatedpopulationEnergyNon-essential:ResourcesPopulationGrowthvs.GDP&EnergyPopulationgrowthto10-11billionpeoplein2050

PercapitaGDPgrowthat1.6%peryearEnergyconsumptionperunitofGDPdeclinesat1.0%peryearWorldEnergyReserveandDemandMillionsofbarrelsperday(oilequivalent)CO2EmissionConclusionsCurrentenergyconsumptionisNOTsustainableRenewableenergiestofillthegapofenergyreserveanddemandareessentialEnergyefficiencyneedstobesubstantiallyincreasedTechnologiesplayacentralroleinachievingenergysustainabilityRenewableEnergiesSolarWindBiomassHydropowerTide,etc.EnergyEfficiencyBatteriesEnergystorageFuelcellsHydrogenOthersSolarWindBiomassHydroTideRenewableEnergies:TheNextIndustrialRevolutionRenewableenergiesandenergyefficiencyRenewableEnergyPotentialThetotalsolarenergyabsorbedbyatmosphere,oceansandlandmassesisapproximately3,850,000exajoules

(EJ)peryear.In2002,thiswasmoreenergyinonehourthantheworldusedinoneyear!Solar 3,850,000EJWind 2,250EJBiomass 100-300EJPrimaryenergyuse(2010) 539EJElectricity(2010) 66.5EJ1EJ=1018JRenewablesandTheirGrowthGasificationandReformingHightemperaturereforming(600-1100oC):

CxHy+O2

→CO+H2(SyntheticGas)Water-gasshift(250–400oC) CO+H2O→CO2+H2Bothreactionsneedcatalysts!CO2Capture,SequestrationandUtilizationCO2captureoff-sitesisverydifficultCO2captureon-sitesistechnicallyfeasibleCouplingthermodynamicallyendothermicreactionswithCO2conversionfacilitatesCO2utilizationEnergyStorage:KeytoTheSuccessofRenewableEnergiesChemical:Hydrogen,liquidnitrogen,etc.Electrochemical:Batteries,fuelcells,capacitors,etc.Mechanical:Compressedair,gravitationalpotentialenergy,etc.Thermal:Icestorage,moltensalts,etc.EnergyStorage:SmartGridsEnergyStorage:TechnologyNeedsWeneedasuiteofenergystoragetechnologiesforvariousgeological,ecological,social-economicalenvironmentsWeneedawell-balancedportfolioofenergystoragetechnologiesaccountingforefficiency,costs,energydemands,transportation,etc.LowefficiencytechnologydoesnotnecessarilymeaninferiorTheRoleofHydrogenHydrogencanbegeneratedfrombothfossilandrenewablesourcesHydrogencanbeusedasanenergycarrier,notasource,likeelectricityHydrogenpotentiallycanbeusedtodramaticallyenhancetheenergyefficiencyFuelCellsProtonexchangemembranefuelcellsanode:H2

→2H++e-cathode:O2+2e-→2O2-Hightemperaturefuelcellsanode:2H2+2O2–→2H2O+4e–cathode:O2+4e–→2O2–

ThePromiseofHydrogenThelightestelementwiththehighestenergydensityAbundantandpotentiallyunlimitedCleanandefficientconversiontopowerNopollutants–onlywaterasbyproductWhatHasHappenedinthePast10Years?FordHyseriesDrivespec:FuelcellTank:350bar,4.5kgH2Topspeed:~85mphRange:~200milesWhatHasHappenedinthePast10Years?ToyotaFCHV-BUSPolymerelectrolytefuelcell+nickelmetalhydridebatteryTanks:35MPaTopspeed:~80km/hWhatHasHappenedinthePast10Years?BoeingEC-003hydrogen-poweredplaneWeight:800kg(2passengers)H2Tanks:supporta45minutesflightSpeed:~100km/hAltitude:3000ft.WhatHasHappenedinthePast10Years?HYDRA:theworld'sfirstcertifiedFuelCellBoat5kWAFCfuelcellLength:12m,draft:0.52mH2Tanks:33m3

Speed:~4mphCapacity:22passengers(Karl-HeineKanalinLeipzig,Germany,2000)WhatHasHappenedinthePast10Years?GermanyNavy:Type206submarine,SauroclassWeight:1,450tons,surfaced;1,830tons,submergedLength:56m;Draft:6m;Beam:7m9HDW/SiemensPEMfuelcells,30–40kWeach(U31)Speed:37km/hsubmerged;22km/hsurfaced.Range:14,800km,3weekswithoutsnorkeling(Karl-HeineKanalinLeipzig,Germany,2000)WhatHasHappenedinthePast10Years?BMW:Hydrogen7V12engine:runningonbothpremiumgasolineandH2fuelPoweroutput:191kw(256hp);to100km/h:9.5secondsH2tank:8kg(18lbs.)liquidhydrogenRange:125miles(byH2)and300miles(bygasoline)atcruisingspeedsBMWHydrogen7UTCFuelCellsPC25sinAnchorage,AlaskaFivefuelcellsprovidealltheelectricalpowertothemainpostalsortingfacilityWhatHasHappenedinthePast10Years?InfrastructureTrunks:6,000-9,000gallonliquidgasolinecapacityHydrogenHighwayEurope:Germany,Italy,Norway,Scandinavia,Sweden,Denmark,SpainAmerica:Canada,USA(California,Florida,Eastcoast),Asia:JapanEuropeanUnionHydrogenHighway

FractionoftotalnewvehiclesalesPenetrationCurvesforFuelCellVehicles

CompletereplacementofICEvehicleswithfuelcellvehiclesin2050FractionoftotalvehiclemilesPenetrationCurvesforFuelCellVehiclesSourceofhydrogen:limitedwithfossilfuelsbutpotentiallyunlimitedwithwaterHydrogenstorageanddelivery:tooexpensiveandhighlyinefficientHighcapacityandhighreversibilityAmbientconditionstorageanddeliveryLowtemperaturewellcontrolledH2releaseFuelcells:tooexpensiveandshortlifespanInfrastructure:extremelyexpensiveGrandChallengesofH2EconomyWorldwideconsumption:50Mtonsperyearin2004,growingatabout10%peryear.UsedforpetroleumrefineriestoconvertlowgradecrudeoilsintotransportfuelsandforfertilizerproductionAccordingtotheU.S.DepartmentofEnergy,theU.S.produces9MtonsofH2in2005,enoughtofuelmorethan34Mcars(~0.7kg/car/dayonaverage,drivingforapproximately60kmperday)Thereareapproximately247Mvehicles(cars,busesandtrucks)intheU.S.in2007.TheU.S.alonewillneedtoincreaseH2productionbyatleast10timestofueltheH2economy.Thiswouldproduceabout500MtonsCO2peryear(assumingH2isproducedviaSMR),whichisarelativelysmallnumbercomparedtooverallCO2releaseInChina,therewereonly5.54Mvehiclesontheroadin1990butthenumberofvehiclesincreasedto70Min2010andby2020willexceed200M.HydrogenProductionSteammethanereform(~95%H2production)CH4+H2O→CO+H2,49.3kcal/mol(700-1000oC)CO+H2O→CO2+H2,-9.9kcal/mol(200-350oC)For1moleH2,¼moleCO2isgenerated,~1:5.5inweightratioOnsiteCO2capturecanberealizedbutonboardCO2captureisalmostimpossibleHydrogenproductionfrombiomass,oil,municipalwastesandcoalgasificationmayutilizesimilarprocessesHydrogenProduction:SteamReformPartialoxidationCH4+O2→CO+H2, -8.5kcal/molCO+H2O→CO2+H2, -9.9kcal/molCO2captureHydrogenproductionfrombiomass,oil,municipalwastesandcoalgasificationmayutilizesimilarprocessesHydrogenProduction:PartialOxidationElectrolysisofwater,usingoff-peakcapacityUseofnuclearheattoassiststeamreformingofnaturalgasupto900oC

High-temperatureelectrolysisofsteam,usingheatandelectricityfromnuclearreactorsHigh-temperaturethermochemicalproductionusingnuclearheatHydrogenProductionfromNuclearPowerBiomassconversion(thermochemical,photocatalytic,etc.)Solarconversion(watersplitting)Wind(electrolysis)Hydropower(el