英语教学法复习重要点

.Unit1LanguageandLearning1Howdowelearnlanguage？WelearnlanguageatdifferentagesPeoplehavedifferentexperiencesPeoplelearnlanguagesfordifferentreasonsPeoplelearnlanguagesindifferentwaysPeoplehavedifferentcapabilitiesinlanguagelearningLearningcanbeaffectedbythewayhowlanguageistaughtLearningisaffectedbythedegreeofsuccessoneisexpecttoachieve.Thusthechallengeconfrontinglanguageteachingishowteachingmethodologycanensuresuccessfullearningbyallthelearnerswhohavemoredifferencesthanthecommonality.2.Whatarethemajorviewsoflanguage?1)Structuralview:Languageisalinguisticsystemmadeupofvarioussubsystems:phonology,morphology,lexicologyandsyntacx.Tolearnalanguageistolearnitsvocabularyandstructuralrules.2)Functionalview:Languageisalinguisticsystemaswellasameansfordoingthings.Learnerslearnalanguageinordertobeabletodothingswithit(useit).Toperformfunctions,learnersneedtoknowhowtocombinethegrammaticalrulesandthevocabularytoexpressnotionsthatperformthefunctions.3)Interactionalview:Languageisacommunicativetooltobuildupandmaintainsocialrelationsbetweenpeople.Learnersneedtoknowtherulesofalanguageandwhere,whenandhowitisappropriatetousethem.3.ViewsonLanguageLearningTwobroadlearningtheories：Process-orientedtheoriesareconcernedwithhowthemindorganizesnewinformation.Condition-orientedtheoriesemphasizethenatureofhumanandphysicalcontext.BehavioristtheoryB.F.SkinnerAstimulus-responsetheoryofpsychologyAudio-lingualmethodTheideaofthismethodisthatlanguageislearnedbyconstantrepetitionandthereinforcementoftheteacher.Mistakeswereimmediatelycorrected,andcorrectutteranceswereimmediatelypraised.CognitivetheoryInfluencedbyNoamChomsky(revivalofstructurallinguistics)Languageasanintricaterule-basedsystemAlearneracquireslanguagecompetencewhichenableshimtoproducelanguage.Oneinfluentialideaofcognitiveapproachtolanguageteachingisthatstudentsshouldbeallowedtocreatetheirownsentencebasedontheirownunderstandingofcertainrules.ConstructivisttheoryJeanPiaget(1896—1980)Thelearnerconstructsmeaningbasedonhis/herownexperiencesandwhatisalreadyknown.Socio-constructivisttheoryVygotsky“ZoneofProximalDevelopment”(ZPD);scaffolding(脚手架)Learningisbestachievedthroughthedynamicinteractionbetweentheteacherandthelearnerandbetweenlearners.4Whatarethequalitiesofagoodlanguageteacher?Agoodlanguageteacherdoesnotsolelydependonhis/hercommandofthelanguage.Thereareavarietyofelementthatcontributestothequalitiesofagoodlanguageteacher.Theseelementcanbecategorizedintothreegroups:ethicdevotion,professionalqualityandpersonalstyles.EthicdevotionProfessionalqualitiespersonalstyleswarm-heartedcreativeFlexible灵活的hardworkingResourceful知识渊博的Dynamics有动力的enthusiasticauthoritativepatientCaringwell-informed见多识广的Attentive专心的kindaccurateIntuitive有洞察力的well-prepared准备充分的speakingclearlyhumorousdisciplinedPersonally-trained经过专业训练的

5Howcanonebecomeagoodlanguageteacher?Wallace’s(1991)‘reflectivemodel’(Figure1.1,p.9)Stage1:languagedevelopmentStage2:learning,practice,reflectionThelearningstageisthepurposefulpreparationthatalanguagenormallyreceivesbeforethepractice,Thispreparationcaninclude:1.Learningfromothers’experience2.Learningthereceivedknowledge3.Learningfromone’sownexperiencesThepracticestage(2senses)Pseudopractice:shortperiodoftimeassignedtodoteachingpracticeaspartofone’spre-serviceeducation,usuallyunderthesupervisionofinstructorsTherealclassroomteaching:whatateacherundertakesafterhe/shefinishesformaleducationTeachersbenefitfrompracticeiftheykeeponreflectingonwhattheyhavebeendoingGoal:professionalcompetenceUnit2CommunicativePrinciplesandTask-basedlanguageteaching1Howislanguagelearnedinclassroomsdifferentfromlanguageusedinreallife?LanguageusedinreallifeLanguagetaughtintheclassroomToperformcertaincommuntcativefunctionsTofocusonforms(structuresorpatterns)Useallskills,bothreceptiveskillsandproductiveskillsTofocusononeortwolanguageskillsandignoreothers.UsedinacertaincontextToisolatelanguagefromitscontext2Whatiscommunicativecompetence?Tobridgethegapbetweenclassroomlanguageteachingandreal-lifelanguageuse,onesolutionistoadoptCLT,thegoalofwhichistodevelopstudents’communicativecompetence.3.Definition:Communicativecompetenceincludeboththeknowledgeaboutthelanguageandtheknowledgeabouthowtousethelanguageappropriatelyincommunicativesituations4Fivecomponentsofcommunicativecompetence(Hedge2000)Linguisticcompetence（语言能力）Theknowledgeoflanguageitself,itsformandmeaning.Pragmaticcompetence（语用能力）Theappropriateuseoflanguageinsocialcontext.Discoursecompetence（语篇能力）One’sabilitytocreatecoherentwrittentextorconversationandtheabilitytounderstandthemStrategiccompetence（策略能力）Strategiesoneemployswhenthereiscommunicationbreakdownduetolackofresources.Fluency（流利性）One‘sabilityto‘linkunitsofspeechtogetherwithfacilityandwithoutstrainorinappropriateslownessorundue（过分的，不适当的）hesitation’6.ImplicationsforteachingandlearningTeachingmustenablelearnerstograspthefivecomponentsofcommunicativecompetence,butnotjustthelinguisticcompetence.7.PrinciplesofCLTThreeprinciplessuggestbyRichardandRodgers：1Communicationprinciple：involverealcommunication2Taskprinciple：Carryoutmeaningfultasks3Meaningfulnessprinciple：MeaningfullanguagetothelearnerHowattproposesaweakandastrongversionofCLT:WeakversionLearnersfirstacquirelanguageasastructuralsystemandthenlearnhowtouseitincommunication.Strongversion“languageisacquiredthroughcommunication”(Howatt,1984:279)8.MajorActivityTypesofCLTAsequenceofactivitiesrepresentedinLittlewood(1981:86)Pre-communicativeactivitiesStructuralactivitiesQuasi-communicativeactivities类似,准,半Communicativeactivities(PP22-23)FunctionalcommunicationactivitiesSocialinteractionactivities9.Littlewood’s(1981)classificationofcommunicativeactivities:1).Functionalcommunicativeactivities:2).Socialinteractionactivities:(1).Functionalcommunicativeactivities:1.Identifyingpictures2.Discoveringidenticalpairs3.Discoveringsequencesorlocations4.Discoveringmissinginformation5.Discoveringmissingfeatures6.Discovering"secrets"7.Communicatingpatternsandpictures8.Communicativemodels9.Discoveringdifferences10.Followingdirections11.Reconstructingstory-sequences12.Poolinginformationtosolveaproblem(2).Socialinteractionactivities:1.Role-playingthroughcueddialogues2.Role-playingthroughcuesandinformation3.Role-playingthroughsituationandgoals4.Role-playingthroughdebateordiscussion5.Large-scalesimulationactivities6.Improvisation10.SixCriteriaforevaluatingcommunicativeclassroomactivities1.Communicativepurpose2.Communicativedesire3.Content,notform4.Varietyoflanguage5.Noteacherintervention6.Nomaterialscontrol9.WhatisTask-basedLanguageTeaching?TBLTisafurtherdevelopmentofCLT.Itsharesthesamebeliefintheuseoflanguageinreallife,butstressestheimportancetocombineform-focusedteachingwithcommunication-focusedteaching.10.FourcomponentsofataskApurposeAcontextAprocessAproduct11.Exercises,exercise-tasksandtasksExercise-tasksishalfwaybetweentasksandexercises.Thiskindofactivityconsistsofcontextualizedpracticeoflanguageitem.12.DifferencesbetweenPPPandTBLT1ThewaystudentsuseandexperiencelanguageinTBLTisradicallydifferentfromPPP.1.Freeoflanguagecontrol2.genuineneedtouselanguagetocommunicate3.Afreeexchangeofideas4.Appropriateness&accuracyoflanguageformingeneral,notproductionofasingleform5.Agenuineneedforaccuracyandfluency2.TBLcanprovideacontextforgrammarteachingandform-focusedactivities.PPPisdifferentinthisaspect.Atask-establishedcontextEncouragedtothink,analyze,notsimplytorepeat,manipulateandapplyAmorevariedexposuretonaturallanguageLanguageformsnotpre-selectedforfocusLearner-freeselectionoflanguageTBLcycleleadfromFluencytoaccuracy(+fluency)InTBLIntegratedskillspracticed13.Howtodesigntasks?Step1Thinkaboutstudents’needs,interests,andabilitiesStep2BrainstormpossibletasksStep3EvaluatethelistStep4ChoosethelanguageitemsStep5Preparingmaterials14.CLTandTBLTintheChinesecontextProblemswithCLT1.Theveryfirstandforcefulargumentiswhetheritisculturallyappropriate2.ThesecondproblemofCLTrelatetothedesignthesyllabusforteachingpurposeintheclassroom.3.ThethirdproblemisthatwhethersuchanapproachissuitableforallageleveloflearnersorallcompetenceleveloflearnersConstraintsofTBLT1.Thefirstisitmaynotbeeffectiveforpresentingnewlanguageitems2.ThesecondconstraintisTimeasteachershavetopreparetask-basedactivitiesverycarefully.3.Thethirdisthecultureoflearning4.TheforthisLevelofdifficultyUnit31.AbriefhistoryofforeignlanguageteachinginChinaAphaseofrestoration(1978-1985)Aphaseofrapiddevelopment(1986-1992)Aphaseofreform(1993-2000)Aphaseofinnovationfrom20002.DesigningprinciplesfortheNationalEnglishCurriculum1)

Aimforeducatingallstudents,andemphasizequality-orientededucation.2)Promotelearner-centeredness,andrespectindividualdifferences.3)Developcompetence-basedobjectives,andallowflexibilityandadaptability.4)Paycloseattentiontothelearningprocess,andadvocateexperientiallearningandparticipation.5)

Attachparticularimportancetoformativeassessment,andgivespecialattentiontothedevelopmentofcompetence.6)Optimizelearningresources,andmaximizeopportunitiesforlearningandusingthelanguage.3.GoalsandobjectivesofEnglishlanguageteachingThenewcurriculumisdesignedtopromotestudents’overalllanguageability,whichiscomposedoffiveinterrelatedcomponents,namely,languageskills,languageknowledge,affects,learningstrategiesandculturalunderstanding.Eachcomponentisfurtherdividedintoafewsub-categories.Languageteachingisnolongeraimedonlyfordevelopinglanguageskillsandknowledge,butexpandedtodevelopinglearners’positiveattitude,motivation,confidenceaswellasstrategiesforlife-longlearningalongwithcross-culturalknowledge,awarenessandcapabilities.Theoveralllanguageabilityrequiredinthe2001NationalEnglishCurriculumincludesthefollowingaspectslanguageknowledge,(languageskills,learningstrategies,affectsculturalunderstanding.4DesignoftheNationalEnglishCurriculumThestandardsfordifferentlevelsofcompetence5ChallengesfacingEnglishlanguageteachers1)

Englishlanguageteachersareexpectedtochangetheirviewsaboutlanguagewhichisnotasystemoflinguisticknowledgebutameansforcommunication.2)

Englishlanguageteachersareexpectedtochangetheirtraditionalroleofaknowledgetransmittertoamulti-roleeducator.3)

Englishlanguageteachersareexpectedtousemoretask-basedactivitiesandputthestudentsatthecenteroflearning.4)

Englishlanguageteachersareexpectedtousemoreformativeassessmentinadditiontousingtests.5)

Englishlanguageteachersareexpectedtousemoderntechnologyinteaching,creatingmoreeffectiveresourcesforlearningandforusingthelanguage.Unit4LessonPlanning1.Lessonplanningmeansmakingdecisionsinadvanceaboutwhattechniques,activitiesandmaterialswillbeusedintheclass.2.Whyislessonplanningnecessary?Properlessonplanningisessentialforbothnovice/beginnerandexperiencedteachers.3.Benefitfromlessonplanninginanumberofways1).Aclearlessonplanmakestheteacherawareoftheaimsandlanguagecontentsofthelesson.2).Italsohelpstheteachertodistinguishthevariousstagesofalessonandtoseetherelationshipbetweenthemsothatthelessoncanmovesmoothlyfromonestagetoanother.3).Theteachercanalsothinkabouthowthestudentscanbefullyengagedinthelesson.4).whenplanningthelesson,theteacheralsobecomesawareoftheteachingaidsthatareneeded.5).Lessonplanninghelpsteacherstothinkabouttherelativevalueofdifferentactivitiesandhowmuchtimeshouldbespentonthem.6).Theteachersoonlearntojudgelessonstagesandphaseswithgreateraccuracy.7).Plansarealsoanaidtocontinuingimprovement.8).Afterthelesson,theteachercanaddanevaluationtotheplan,identifyingthosepartswhichwentwellandthosewhichwerelesssuccessful.4.Therearefourmajorprinciplesbehindgoodlessonplanning:1)variety,2)flexibility,,3)learnability,4)linkageDefinitionsofvariety,flexibility,learnability,andlinkage.Varietymeansplanninganumberofdifferenttypesofactivitiesandwherepossibleintroducingstudentstoawideselectionofmaterialssothatlearningisalwaysinteresting,motivatingandnevermonotonousforthestudents.Flexibilitymeansplanningtouseanumberofdifferentmethodsandtechniquesratherthanbeingaslavetoonemethodology.Thiswillmaketeachingandlearningmoreeffectiveandmoreefficient.Learnabilitymeansthecontentsandtasksplannedforthelessonshouldbewithinthelearningcapabilityofthestudents.Ofcourse,thingsshouldnotbetooeasyeither.Doingthingsthatarebeyondorbelowthestudents'copingabilitywilldiminishtheirmotivation(Schumann,1999).Linkagemeansthestagesandthestepswithineachstageareplannedinsuchawaythattheyaresomehowlinkedwithoneanother.Languagelearningneedsrecyclingandreinforcement.5.Macroplanninginvolves:1)Knowingabouttheprofession:2)Knowingabouttheinstitution:3)Knowingaboutthelearners:4)Knowingaboutthesyllabus/curriculum:5)Knowingaboutthetextbook6)Knowingabouttheobjectives6.Componentsofalessonplan1.Backgroundinformation:numberofstudents/ages/grade/genders/thetimeandthedateofthelesson/thetimedurationofthelesson2.Teachingobjectives:Whatdoyouwantstudentstoknowandbeabletodo?3.Languagecontentsandskills:structures,vocabulary,functions,topicsandsoon;listening,speaking,readingandwriting.4.Teachingstagesandprocedure:themajorchunksofactivitiesthatteachersgothroughinalesson.Proceduresarethedetailedstepsineachteachingstage.1)Five-stepteachingmodel(1)

warm-up/atarter/revision;(2)

presentation(3)

drilling(4)

consolidation(5)

summaryandhomework2)ThethreeP’smodel:presentation,practice,andproduction5.Teachingaids:realobjects/flashcards/wordcards/worksheets/wallcharts/cassettetapes/magazinepictures/video,Multi-media,etc.6.Endoflessonsummary:Purposesofmakingasummaryistotakelearningfurtheranddeeperbyhelpingthestudentstoreferbacktothelearningobjectives;Tocreateasenseofachievementandcompletionoftasksforthestudents.Todevelopwithstudentsahabitofreflectiononlearning;stimulateinterest,curiosityandanticipationaboutthenextphaseoflearning;helpstudentsdrawoutapplicationsofwhathasbeenlearnedandhighlighttheimportantconceptionswhichhavedeveloped.7.Optionalactivitiesandassignment8.Afterclassreflection7.Theadvantageofaconcreteteachingplan:Teacherscanfollowitintheclassandcheckwhattheyhavedone;Theplanwillbethebasisofarecordofwhathasbeencoveredinclass;Itwillmakeiteasiertomakeachievementtestslater;Itwillbegoodrecordsfortheentirecourse.8.Theaimsofalessonincludelanguagecomponentstopresent,communicativeskillstopractice,activitiestoconductmaterialstobeusedteachingaidstobeused.Unit5ClassroomManagement1.Whatisclassroommanagement?Classroommanagementisthewayteachersorganizewhatgoesonintheclassroom.(68)thegoalofclassroommanagementistocreateanatmosphereconduciveto(有助于)interactinginEnglishinmeaningfulways(Gebhard,1996).2.Efficientclassroommanagementcanbeachievedwhenthefollowingsixconditionsaremet.Theteacherplaysappropriateroles.Theteacherprovidesclearerinstructions.Studentsaregroupedinawaysuitableforthelearningactivities.Thereisdisciplineaswellasharmonyintheclass.Theteacherasksappropriatequestions.Thestudents’errorsaretreatedproperly3Whatrolesdoestheteacherplay?Controller(whattolearn;howtolearn)Assessor(correctingmistakes;organizingfeedback)Organiser(students’activities)Prompter(whenssdon’tknowwhattodo…)Participant(inss’activities)Resource-providerTeachers’rolesarenotstatic.Theychangewiththedevelopmentofthesociety.Newroles:TeacherasfacilitatorCreateapositivelearningenvironment,usevariousstrategiestomotivatelearners,guidestudentsinplanningandassessingtheirlearninganddeveloptheirlearningstrategies…TeacherasguideActivatestudents’priorknowledge;findindividualinterestsandexplorepotentialcapabilities;acknowledgeandrespectindividualdifferences;giveeachequalopportunityinlearning;evaluatestudents’developmentfairlyfromanall-roundperspective…TeacherasresearcherObserveaproblem,reflectonthereasons,thinkaboutpossiblesolutions,implementthesolutionsandevaluatetheresults…Controller:Theteachercontrols:1).thespace(activitiesrunsmoothly),2).thetime(dolockstepactivities)3.thewholeclass(Sshaveequalchance)4.theproduction(adegreeofaccuracy)Assessor:Theteacherdoestwothings:1).Correctingmistakes(notmakingabigfuss大惊小怪butgentlebyHarmer)2).Organizingfeedback(discouragingfortheteachertobecritical不提倡吹毛疵,focusingonSs’successprogress)Organizer:Theteachershouldbeimportantanddifficultasit:1).Usingcreative/unlimitedway2).Envisaging设想activities,3).Anticipatingtheproblems4).Givingclearandconciseinstructions5).Demonstrating6.Usingnativelanguagetoclarifyifnecessary7.Walkingaroundandmonitoring8.Rectifying订正9.Takingmentalnotes轮流惦记Prompter:Theteachershoulddo:1).Givinghints(justliketime,place…)2).Elicitingmore(bysaying”and…?”“Anythingelse?”Yes,butwhy…?(Ss.readtheexample)Participant:Theteachershouldn’tdominateorappeartobeauthoritative.Resource-provider:Wehavecriticizedthejug-and-mugmethod,buttheteachershouldwithholdhis/herreadinesstoprovideresourc4Howtogiveeffectiveclassroominstructions?Classroominstructionsrefertothetypeoflanguageteachersusetoorganizeorguidelearning.Tousesimpleinstructionsandmakethemsuitthecomprehensionlevelofthestudents;Tousethemother-tongueonlywhenitisnecessary;GivestudentstimetogetusedtolisteningtoEnglishinstructions;Usebodylanguagetoassistunderstanding;Modelthetask/activitybeforelettingstudentsintogroupsorpairs…Teachersarenotexpectedtodoallthetalkinginclass.Tip:Demonstrationisusuallymoreeffectivethanwords.5.Whatarethedifferentwaysforstudentgrouping?Wholeclasswork,pairwork,groupwork,individualstudyWholeclassworkAllthestudentsareunderthecontroloftheteacher,doingthesameactivityatthesamerhythmandpace.PairworkStudentsworkinpairsonanexerciseortask.GroupworkStudentsworkinsmallgroupsof3-5students.IndividualstudyStudentsworkontheirownattheirownspeed.TypesofstudentgroupingandtheiradvantagesanddisadvantagesinP314(task4)6.DisciplineinthelanguageclassroomQ:Whatdoesdisciplinemean?Disciplinereferstoacodeofconductwhichbindsateacherandagroupofstudentstogethersothatlearningcanbemoreeffective.(78)7:Howtomaintaindiscipline?P.79Althoughdisciplineisoftendiscussedtogetherwithclassroommanagement,Classroommanagementskillsarenotsufficientifdisciplineistobeachieved，rather，avarietyofteacher’sbehaviorcontributetodiscipline,suchastheteacher’schoiceofmethodology,theirinterpersonalrelationshipswithstudents,theirpreparationforthelesson.Beside,student’smotivation,whichcanbeenhancedbytheteacheraction,isextremelyimportantfordiscipline.Whenstudentsareengagedinlearning,theywillbedisciplined.(79)1.Ssareclearaboutlearningpurpose;2.Ssareabletodotheworkbutfinditchallenging;3.Ssareemotionally,physicallyandintellectuallyinvolvedbythetasks;4.Thepresentation,varietyandstructureoftheworkandactivitiesgeneratecuriosityandinterest;5.Sshaveopportunitiestoaskquestionsandtryoutideas;6.Sscanseewhattheyhaveachievedandhowtheyhadmadeprogress;7.Ssgetafeelingofsatisfactionandenjoymentfromthework.8Whatcausesdisciplineproblems?1.Agapinthelesson(e.g.badplanning,equipmentfailstowork)2.Unclearinstructions3.Lackofteacherattention4.Theteacherconcentratesonlengthyexplanationstooneindividualsothattheothersgetbored5.Workistooeasyortoochallenging9.Whatmeasurescanwetakeforundisciplinedactsandbadlybehavingstudents?Harmer(1983)p.81Actimmediately.Stoptheclass.Rearrangetheseats.Changetheactivity.Talktostudentsafterclass.Createacodeofbehavior.Ur’s(1996)adviceDealwithitquietly.Don’ttakethingspersonally.Don’tusethreats.10Howtomakequestioningmoreeffective?Questionsshouldbecloselylinkedtothelearningobjectivesinthelesson;Questionsshouldbestagedsothatthelevelofchallengeincreasesasthelessonproceeds;Thereshouldbeabalancebetweenclosedandopen,lower-orderandhigher-orderquestions;Waittimeisimportanttoallowstudentstothinkthroughtheiranswers;Ssshouldbeprovidedopportunitiestoasktheirownquestionsandseektheirownanswers;Asecureandrelaxedatmosphereoftrustisneededandss’opinionsandideasarevalued.11.Whattypesofquestionsarethere?(Classificationofquestions)Closedandopenquestions;Displayandgenuinequestions;Lower-orderandhigh-orderquestions;Bloom’staxonomy分类系统(Nuttall,1982)KnowledgeComprehensionApplicationAnalysisSynthesisEvaluation12:Whatareerrors?Howaretheydifferentfrommistakes?Amistakerefersto“aperformanceerrorthatiseitherarandomguessora‘slipoftongue’,anditisafailureperformancetoaknownsystem”(Brown,2000:218-219)Anerrorhasdirectrelationwiththelearner’slanguagecompetence.Errorsdonotresultfromcarelessnessnorhesitation,butlackofknowledgeinthetargetlanguage.Amistakecanbeself-corrected;anerrorcannotbe.13Whentocorrecterrors?Generally,itisbestnottointerruptstudentsduringfluencyworkunlesscommunicationbreaksdown.Letatrivialmistakepassifmostofthelanguageisright.Forsomecommonmistakes,takeanoteinmindfirstandcorrectafterthestudent’sperformance.14Howtocorrecterrors?Differentwaysandtechniques:DirectteachercorrectionIndirectteachercorrectionSelf-correctionPeercorrectionWholeclasscorrectionWhichtechniquestouse?Asageneralrule,indirectteachercorrectionisencouragedratherthandirectonestoavoiddamagingss’self-esteemandconfidence.Inpractice,self-correctionisencouragedbeforeteachercorrectionorpeercorrection,esp.formistakes.Thewholeclasscorrectionisusedformainerrortypes(e.g.TheBigTen)Unit6TeachingPronunciation1.CriticalPeriodHypothesis:abiologicallydeterminedperiodoflifewhenlanguagecanbeacquiredmoreeasilyandbeyondwhichtimelanguageisincreasingdifficulttoacquire.2.ThegoalofteachingpronunciationThegoalofteachingpronunciationisnottoteachlearnerstoachieveaperfectimitationofanativeaccent,butsimplytogetthelearnerstopronounceaccuratelyenoughtobeeasilyandcomfortablycomprehensibletootherspeakers.3Therealisticgoalsofteachingpronunciationisasfollowing:Consistency:thepronunciationshouldbesmoothandnatural;Intelligibility:thepronunciationshouldbeunderstandabletothelisteners;Communicativeefficiency:thepronunciationshouldhelpconveythemeaningthatisintendedbythespeaker.4.Threeaspectsofpronunciationtoteach?Stress,intonation,rhythm5.OnecommonprobleminlearningEnglishofSs:(Neglectstressandintonation)6.Whataspectsofpronunciationdoweneedtoteach?Pronunciationisanumbrellatermcoveringmanyaspects,besidesoundandphonesymbols,suchasstress,intonation,andrhythm,ofcourse,theseaspectsarenotisolatedfromeachother,rather,theyareinterrelated.7.Howtoachievegoodpronunciation?PracticemakesperfectBothmechanicalpracticeandmeaningfulpracticearebeneficial.8Practisingsounds(Listsomemethodsofpracticingsounds.)Mechanicaldrillingisboringanddemotivating;itisimportanttocombinedrillingpronunciationexerciseswithmoremeaningfulexercisesthatfocusonwhateveraspectofpronunciationisthefocusofthelesson.FocusonasoundFocusonaindividualsoundsespeciallythosesoundthataredifficulttolearnPerceptionpracticeWhatisthegoalofperceptionpractice?Developingthestudents’abilitytoidentifyanddistinguishbetweendifferentsounds.Examplesofperceptionpractice:Usingminimalpairs(withonesounddifference):will/well;ship/sheep;light/nightWhichorder:bear,tear,earSameordifferent?[met],[mi:t]OddoneoutCompletion9.Thegoalofproductionpracticeisdevelopingstudents’abilitytoproducesounds.Listenandrepeat(practiceindividualsounds,individualwords,groupsofwords,sentences(mechanicalimitation)Fillintheblanks(insentenceswithwordswhichcontaincertainsounds).Makeupsentences(usingasmanyfromthegivenwordsaspossible).Usemeaningfulcontext(toperformmeaningfultaskssuchasrole-play).Usepictures(toproducemeaningfullanguage).Usetonguetwisters(topracticepronunciation).10.PractisingstressandintonationTwotypesofstress:word-levelstressPhrase-levelorsentence-levelstress11.TeachingmethodsofstressThemostimportantthinginpractisingstressismakingthestudentsawareofwheretostressthewordsorphrases.Usegestures(e.g.clappinghands;usingarmmovements)Usethevoice(raisethevoicetoindicatestress)Usetheblackboard(underlinethestresspartsorwritewithcoloredchalks12Practicingintonation(Howtopractiseintonation?)U