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FiscalAnatomyofTwo
CrisesandanInterlude
XuehuiHan,PaoloMauro,andJohnRalyea
WP/23/117
IMFWorkingPapersdescriberesearchin
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elicitcommentsandtoencouragedebate.
TheviewsexpressedinIMFWorkingPapersare
thoseoftheauthor(s)anddonotnecessarily
representtheviewsoftheIMF,itsExecutiveBoard,
orIMFmanagement.
2023
JUN
*TheauthorsaregratefultoVitorGasparandotherparticipantsinseminarsintheIMF’sFiscalAffairsDepartment.
©2023InternationalMonetaryFund
WP/23/117
IMFWorkingPaper
FiscalAffairsDepartment
FiscalAnatomyofTwoCrisesandanInterlude
PreparedbyXuehuiHan,PaoloMauro,andJohnRalyea*
AuthorizedfordistributionbyPaoloMauro
June2023
IMFWorkingPapersdescriberesearchinprogressbytheauthor(s)andarepublishedtoelicitcommentsandtoencouragedebate.TheviewsexpressedinIMFWorkingPapersarethoseoftheauthor(s)anddonotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsoftheIMF,itsExecutiveBoard,orIMFmanagement.
ABSTRACT:TheGlobalFinancialCrisis(GFC)andtheCOVID-19pandemicareassociatedwiththelargestincreasesinpublicdebtratiossinceWorldWarII.Wedecomposeunexpectedchangesindebtratiosintotheroleofsurprisesineconomicgrowth,interestcosts,policymeasures,andotherfactors.Duringbothcrises,lower-than-expectedoutputcontributedthemosttohigher-than-expecteddebtratios.Fiscalpolicymeasuresrecordedinthepublicdeficitweresimilarinthetwoepisodes.Wealsoanalyzethedecade-longinterlude(2010-19).Ratherthandecliningasforeseeninanormativescenario,debtratiosremainedstableonaverage,asinterestrates,policyadjustmentand,insomecountries,economicgrowthturnedoutlowerthanexpected.
RECOMMENDEDCITATION:Han,Xuehui,PaoloMauro,andJohnRalyea.2023.“FiscalAnatomyofTwoCrisesandanInterude.”IMFWorkingPaper2023/117.InternationalMonetaryFund,Washington,DC.
JELClassificationNumbers:H12,H62,H63,H68
Keywords:CrisisManagement;Publicdebt;Deficit;Forecasts
Author’sE-MailAddress:
xhan@
;
pmauro@
;
jralyea@
;
WORKINGPAPERS
FiscalAnatomyofTwoCrisesandanInterlude
PreparedbyXuehuiHan,PaoloMauro,andJohnRalyea
IMFWORKINGPAPERSFiscalAnatomyofTwoCrisesandanInterlude
INTERNATIONALMONETARYFUND2
Contents
Introduction
3
DebtDevelopmentsDuringtheGlobalFinancialCrisisandtheCOVID-19Pandemic
4
DriversBehindSurpriseChangesinDebt
6
DebtSurprisesDuringtheGFCandCOVID-19Pandemic
7
Driversofdebtsurprisesin2009and2020inindividualG20countries
8
TheRoleoffiscalmeasuresindebtdynamicsduringtheGFCandCOVID-19crises
10
TheInterlude(2010-19)
11
Decompositionofdebtsurprisesforadvancedeconomies
12
DebtdevelopmentsandPolicyMeasuresVersusNormativeRecommendations
14
PolicyDiscussions
15
References
22
FIGURES
1.GlobalGeneralGovernmentDebt
5
2.GrossDebtandInterestExpense
5
3.EconomicRecessionsinG20Countries
7
4.DriversofDebtSurprises:GFCandCOVID-19
8
5.G20:CompositionoftheUnexpectedChangeinDebtin2009
9
6.G20:CompositionoftheUnexpectedChangeinDebtin2020
9
7.DiscretionaryFiscalPolicy:GFC(2009)andCOVID-19Pandemic(2020)
10
8:EstimatesofDiscretionaryFiscalPolicyDuringtheGFCandCOVID-19Pandemic
11
9.AdvancedEconomies:DecompositionofCumulativeDebt‘surprise’for2010-2019
12
10.DecompositionofLower-than-expectedDebtRatiosfor2019
13
11.DecompositionofHigher-than-expectedDebtRatiosfor2019
14
12.AdvancedEconomies:RecommendedandActualFiscalAdjustment,2010-19
15
ANNEXES
I.AnalyticalFrameworkandSensitivitytoElasticityAssumptions
17
II.RobustnessCheckoftheMagnitudeoftheCrisisFiscalPolicyMeasures
19
III.EvolutionofAdvancedEconomies’MacroeconomicandFiscalAggregates
21
IMFWORKINGPAPERSFiscalAnatomyofTwoCrisesandanInterlude
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Introduction
TheGlobalFinancialCrisis(GFC)thatbeganin2008andtheCOVID-19pandemicthatbeganin2020havebeenassociatedwiththelargestincreasesinpublicdebtratiossinceWorldWarII.Duringtheinterveningperiod(the“interlude”),debtratioswerebroadlystableorrising,sothatthepandemicledtoanotherstepincreasebeyondthelevelsreachedbecauseoftheGFC.Thetwocrisesweredifferentinsource(financialversushealth-related),incidenceacrosscountries(theGFCbeingmoreconcentratedinadvancedeconomiesandthuslessglobal,despiteitsname),andthecausesanddurationoftheassociatedrecessions(thepandemicbeingfollowedbyafasterreboundofeconomicactivity).Evenso,analyzingthefactorsthataccountedfortheunexpectedriseinpublicdebtratiosduringthesetwocrisesandtheinterveningperiodmayshedlightonthepathssuchratiosmaytakeinthenextdecade,andtherolethatpoliciescanplayinthatevolution.
Inthispaper,wedecomposeunexpectedchangesindebtratiosintotheroleofsurprisesineconomicgrowth,interestcosts,policymeasures,andresidualfactorssuchasexchangeratedepreciationsandthefiscalcostofbailouts.
1
Weconsiderthefullimpactofeconomicgrowthnotonlythroughthedenominatorinthedebt/GDPratiobutalsoaskeydriveroffiscalrevenuesandthustheprimarysurplus.
Tocapturetheeffectsofthetwocrises,wecomparemacroeconomicandfiscaloutcomes(asmeasuredtoday)for2009(GFC)and2020(pandemic-relatedeconomiccrisis)withprojectionsmadejustbeforetheseverityoftheGFCandtheCOVID-19crisiswereunderstoodbymostanalysts(October2008andJanuary2020vintagesoftheIMF’sWorldEconomicOutlookprojections,respectively).Wealsoanalyzethedecade-longinterlude(2010-19),bycomparingoutcomesmeasuredtodaywith(a)projectionsmadein2010(AprilvintageoftheIMF’sWorldEconomicOutlook)and(b)anormativescenariothatIMFstaff(CottarelliandVinals2010)advisedinearly2010asdesirable,foragradualreturnofdebtratiostowardpre-GFClevels.
Ourkeyfindingsareasfollows:
•Duringbothcrises,lower-than-expectedoutputwasthelargestfactorunderlyinghigher-than-expecteddebtratios,withalmostequalcontributionsthroughthedenominatoreffectandlowerrevenues.Fiscalmeasuresalsoaccountedforasignificantportionoftheriseindebtratios,particularlyforadvancedcountrieswithampleaccesstomarketfinancing.Theso-calledstock-flow-adjustment,whichconsistsofchangesinpublicdebtthatdonotstemfromthefiscaldeficit,alsoplayedaroleduringboththeGFCandthepandemicwhensupportforbanks(GFC)andnonfinancialcorporations(GFCandpandemic)wasprovided.
•Theoverallsizeoffiscalpolicymeasures(recordedinthepublicdeficit)beyondthoseenvisagedpre-crisiswassimilarintheGFCandthepandemic.Althoughannouncedmeasureswerelargerduringthepandemic,implementedmeasureswereaboutthesameinthetwocrises.
•Thepost-GFCinterludeturnedoutdifferent—especiallyinadvancedeconomies—frombothprojectionsandnormativepolicyadvicepublishedinearly2010(afteraninitialrecoveryfromthebruntofthecrisis):
1Theanalysisisbasedonaccountingidentities.Theimpactofbehavioralresponsestoeconomicshocksordifferencesinfiscalmultipliersdependingonwhetherpolicyratesareatthelowerboundisreflectedinthedatabutnotexplicitlyanalyzed.
INTERNATIONALMONETARYFUND4
Comparedwithprojections,countriesgenerallybenefitedfromsubstantiallylowerinterest
payments;economicgrowthturnedoutmuchworsethanexpectedinsomecountries(especiallythosesufferingthemostduringtheEuropeandebtcrisis);fiscalpolicymeasuresaddedtodebtburdensonaverage,butwithtighteninginsomecountriesthatsoughttostemtheadverseimpactofgrowthondebtdynamics,whereasthosewithmorefavorableeconomicgrowthusedtheresultingspaceforsomewhatmoreexpansionaryfiscalpolicies.
ComparedwiththeIMFstaff’snormativepolicyscenario,theproposedambitiousfiscalpolicy
tighteningnevermaterialized.Ratherthangraduallydeclining,debtratiosgenerallyremainedstable,thankstolowerinterestpayments.
Puttingtheseresultstogetherwithanearlyunderstandingoftheaftermathofthepandemic,policymakersmayconsiderthefollowing.Whereasthepost-GFCerawascharacterizedbylowinflation,thepost-lockdownstagesofthepandemichaveseenrapidrecoveryindemandoutstriptheeconomy’sabilitytosupplygoodsandservices,owinginparttodisruptionstosupplychains(initially)andenergyandfood(morerecently).Areductioninfiscaldeficitsisthusadvisablenotonlytoreversetheriseindebtratiosandcreatebuffersforfuturecrises,butalsotohelpthemonetaryauthoritiescurbinflation.Whereaspost-GFC,amuch-fearedincreaseininterestratesnevermaterialized,post-lockdownsrapidinflationhasreduceddebtratiossomewhat,especiallyincountrieswithnon-indexed,long-maturitydebtdenominatedindomesticcurrency.Althoughnominalinterestratesareraisingrapidly,atthetimeofwritingitisdifficulttojudgewhetherrealinterestrateswillriseaboverealeconomicgrowth—animportantdifferentialforfuturedebtdynamics.Basedonthedocumentedexperience,realeconomicgrowth—notoriouslyhardtopredict—willperhapsonceagainbeadecisivedeterminantoffuturedevelopmentsindebtratio.
Althoughsustainableinvestmentsinpeopleandinfrastructurearecrucialforgrowthanddevelopment,attemptstoboostgrowththroughfiscalexpansionalonemaywellbackfire,asassumedimpactsofhigherspendingortaxcutsoneconomicgrowthhaveoftendisappointed,particularlyifmonetarypolicyisnotaccommodative.Similarly,whenpreparingforecastsorstrivingtodesignandimplementpoliciesforsustainabledevelopment,oneshouldbemindfulthatthefuturepathofeconomicgrowthanddebtratioswillremainacombinationofvirtueandfortune.
DebtDevelopmentsDuringtheGlobalFinancial
CrisisandtheCOVID-19Pandemic
GlobalgeneralgovernmentdebtasaratioofGDPjumpedfrom61percentin2007to75percentin2009,
2
withtheGFC’sinitialblow.Itedgedupgraduallyinthefollowingyears,asthefullimpactoftheGFCwasfeltandextended,especiallyinEurope,reaching84percentin2019.Itthenjumpedagainto99percentfollowingtheonsetoftheCOVID-19pandemic(Figure1).
2Globaldebtistheweightedaverageacrosscountries,withweightsbasedonathree-yearmoving-averageGDPinUSDforeachyear,fromtheIMF’sWorldEconomicOutlook.Thesamemethodisusedtocomputeaveragesforadvancedeconomiesandemergingmarketeconomies.
IMFWORKINGPAPERSFiscalAnatomyofTwoCrisesandanInterlude
INTERNATIONALMONETARYFUND5
Debtroseinbothadvancedandemergingmarketeconomies,owingtosomewhatdifferentfactors.Advanced
economydebtaccumulatedrapidlyfrom2007to2012,asdebttroublesintensifiedinseveralEuropeaneconomies;itthenstabilizedfortheremainderofthedecadebeforespikingagainwiththepandemic(Figure2).Thesedevelopmentstookplaceagainstthebackdropofmonetarypolicyaccommodationandlowinterestrates.Inemergingmarkets,debtincreasedbyhalfasmuchasintheadvancedeconomiesduringtheGFC,butitsrisecontinuedthroughoutthe2010s,driveninpartbyChina’sdeficitfinancing.Inlow-incomeeconomies,debtlikewiseroseinthe2010s,thoughbyless.Inallgroupsofcountries,debtsin2022remainwellabovepre-pandemiclevels.Unexpectedinflationin2021-22madeabiggerdentintheadvanced
Figure1.GlobalGeneralGovernmentDebt
(PercentofGDP)
Source:WEOApril2022
economies,wherealargershareofthedebtisdenominatedindomesticcurrency.
Figure2.GrossDebtandInterestExpense
(PercentofGDP)
AdvancedEconomies
5.00
140
130
Debt-to-GDP
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
Interestsexpense
21
19
17
15
13
11
09
2007
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
EmergingMarketEconomies
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
21
19
17
15
13
11
09
2007
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
5.00
Debt-to-GDP
Interestsexpense
Low-IncomeEconomics
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
21
19
17
15
13
11
09
2007
Debt-to-GDP5.00
Interestsexpense
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
Source:IMF,WorldEconomicOutlookApril2023.
IMFWORKINGPAPERSFiscalAnatomyofTwoCrisesandanInterlude
INTERNATIONALMONETARYFUND6
DriversBehindSurpriseChangesinDebt
Inthisshortpaper,weanalyzesurprisechangesingovernmentdebt—calculatedasthedifferencebetweentheactualandprojectedchangesinthedebt-to-GDPratioforagivenyearorperiod—bydecomposingthemintothecontributionsofunexpectedoutcomesinrealgrowth,inflation,effectiveinterestrates,fiscalpolicymeasures,andresidualfactors.WeconsidersuchsurprisechangesfortheGFC,theCOVID-19pandemic,andtheperiodbetweenthesetwocrises.
Specifically,wefocuson2009fortheGFCand2020forthepandemic.Foreachepisode,thesearetheyearswhentheoutputlosswasmostpronounced.OurselectionofrelevantWEOvintagesfromwhichtopullprojectiondata(torepresentpre-crisisexpectations)wasbasedonhistoricalmarkersaswellasthedateswhenthepreponderanceofG20countries,whichaccountfor68percentofglobalGDP,enteredandexitedcrisis-relatedtechnicalrecessions(Figure3).
•FortheGFC,thesourceforprojectionsistheApril2008WEO.ThevintageprecededtheonsetoftheearlyphaseoftheGFC,markedbyunanticipatedeconomicdownturnsinmajorEuropeancountriesandJapaninsecondquarterof2008.WiththeLehmanbankruptcyinSeptember2008,outputinmostG20countriescontractedinthefourthquarterof2008.Bythesecondhalfof2009,allG20membershadexitedtheirGFC-relatedtechnicalrecessions.Theactualchangeindebtfor2009iscomputedbasedontheApril2010WEO,forconsistencywiththeCOVID-19episode(seebelow).
•FortheCOVID-19pandemic,theprojectionsaredrawnfromJanuary2020WEO.Whenthisvintagewasprepared,thepandemicanditsseverityhadnotbeenforeseen,norhadthelockdownsthatbecameprevalentinMarch2020.Althoughthepandemiclastedlonger,wefocusondebtchangesin
2020becauseoutrightrecessionsinmanycountries(includingmostG20economies)endedbymid-tolate-2020.TheApril2022WEOprovidestheactualchangeindebtfor2020.
Tocapturethefullimpactofeconomicgrowthnotonlythroughthedenominatorofthedebtratiobutalsothroughtheprimarysurplus(asashareofGDP),wecomparedevelopmentswitha“nopolicychange”scenariowhererevenuesriseinlinewithnominalGDPandprimaryexpendituresriseinlinewiththeGDPdeflator.Suchscenarioseekstocaptureapolicyapproachwherebytheauthoritiesdonotchangetaxpolicyandprovideaconstantflowofpublicgoodsandservicesinrealterms.(Theelasticitywithrespecttooutputis1forrevenuesand0forexpenditures.Wealsoextendedtheanalysistoallowforalternativeorvaryingelasticities.)
3
Conversely,“fiscalmeasures”arecomputedasthedifferencebetweentheprimarysurplusandthe“nopolicychange”scenario.AnnexIprovidesadetaileddescriptionoftheframework—seealsoMauroandZilinsky(2016).
3Forsimplicity,weassumethattheelasticitiesareconstantacrosscrisisandacrosscountries,andlatershowthattheresultswouldbesimilarusingdifferentelasticities.
INTERNATIONALMONETARYFUND7
1
Figure3.EconomicRecessionsinG20Countries
Year
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
Quarter
1234
1234
1234
1234
1234
1234
1234
1234
1234
1234
1234
234
1234
1234
Argentina
Australia
Brazil
Canada
China
France
Germany
India
Indonesia
Italy
Japan
Korea
Mexico
Russia
SouthAfrica
Turkey
UnitedKingdom
UnitedStates
Sources:IMFWEOApril2022,andIMFstaffestimates.
Note:Areassharedinredidentifyrecessionsconsistingofoutputdeclineforatleasttwoconsecutivequartersbetweenapeakandatrough(inclusive)inrealquarterlyGDP.Thepeakisdefinedasthequarterprecedingthefirstrecession,therecoveryisthequarterwithGDPequalorgreaterthanthepeak,andthetroughistheminimumpointbetweenthepeakandtherecovery.
DebtSurprisesDuringtheGFCandCOVID-19
Pandemic
Theanalysisfocusesonsurprisechangesindebtduringtheheightofeachcrisis.FortheGFC,thiswas2009.FortheCOVID-19pandemic,itwas2020.Atanaggregatedlevel,ingeneral,unexpectedgrowthoutcomesaccountedforamajorpartofthesurpriseincreaseindebt,particularlyfollowingtheCOVID-19lockdowns.TheunexpectedchangesindebtwerelargerinadvancedeconomiesandemergingmarketsatthepeakoftheCOVID-19crisiscomparedtothoseduringthepeakoftheGFC,whereastheoppositewastrueforlow-incomecountries(Figure4,blacksquares).
4
Lower-than-expectedoutputwastheleadingdriverofdebtsurprisesacrossincomegroupsforbothGFCandCOVID-19(greyplusyellowshadingofbars)exceptforlow-incomecountriesduringtheGFCwherestock-flowadjustmentsplayedthelargestroleindebtdevelopments.Optimismbiasingrowthforecastsmayhaveplayedsomeroleinthelower-than-expectedoutput(HoandMauro,2016;ChatterjeeandNowak,2016).Ingeneral,stock-flowadjustmentsincludedebtchangesduetoexchangeratedepreciations,materializationofcontingentliabilities,andanydifferencebetweentheactualandprojectedbenchmarkyeardebtlevel(2008forGFCand2019forCOVID-19).PolicymeasuresweremostsubstantialinAEs,reflectingmorefiscalspacetoprovidesupport.Stock-flowadjustmentsmadesignificantpositivecontributionstosurpriseincreasesindebtinAEsduringtheGFC,largelyreflectingrecoursetogovernmentloansandequityinjections,especiallytosupportfinancialinstitutions.Duringtheheightofthecrises,interestandinflationsurprisescontributedlittletochangesindebt.
4SeealsoAlonsoandPerrelli(2021)foracomprehensiveanalysisofdebtforecasterrorsusingasimilarapproach.
IMFWORKINGPAPERSFiscalAnatomyofTwoCrisesandanInterlude
INTERNATIONALMONETARYFUND8
Driversofdebtsurprisesin2009and2020inindividualG20countries
ThemagnitudesofthesurprisechangesindebtandtheprincipaldriversofthosechangesvariedacrossG-20membersfollowingtheonsetoftheGFC(Figure5).Theunexpectedincreaseindebtwasgreaterinthe
advancedeconomymembersoftheG-20thanforemergingmarketmembers(exceptArgentina).Lower-than-expectedgrowthwasthedominatingfactorbehindsurpriseincreasesindebtincountriessuchasJapan,Italy,Germany,Turkey,Brazil,andMexico.Inaddition,G20membersgenerallyundertooklargerpolicymeasuresthanexpected,withSaudiArabia’sfiscalmeasuresreaching20percentofGDP.
Stock-flowadjustments(residuals)generallycontributedtotheriseindebtratiosbutwithlargevariationacrosscountries.Forexample,stock-flowadjustmentsadded19percentagepointsofGDPtothesurpriseincreaseinArgentina’sdebt,reflectingasizableshareofforeign-currencydenominateddebtcoupledwithlocalcurrencydepreciation,butreducedthedebtratioby23percentagepointsofGDPinSaudiArabia,whichfinancedalargeportionofitspolicymeasuresbydrawingonitssovereignwealthfunds.Theroleofunexpecteddepreciationsoflocal
Figure4.DriversofDebtSurprises:GFCandCOVID-19
(PercentofGDP;Simpleaverage)
Sources:IMFWEOApril2008,WEOApril2010,WEOJanuary2020,WEOApril2022,andIMFstaffestimates.
Note:GFC(2009)projectionsfromWEOApril2008;actualvaluesfromWEOApril2010.COVID-19(2020)projectionsfromWEOJanuary2020;actualvaluesfromWEOApril2022.CountrycountforGFC:AE=33,EM=56,andLIC=24.CountrycountforCOVID-19:AE=35,EM=84,andLIC=54.SFAsarestockflowadjustments.
currenciesisoftenrelevantforemergingmarketanddevelopingeconomiesthatissueforeigncurrencydenominateddebt.Inaddition,stock-flowcontributionstodebtsurprises,includinganyerrorsinpredictingthebaseperioddebt-to-GDPratioagainstwhichunexpectedchangesintheratioarecalculated.
SimilartotheGFC,thesurpriseincreaseindebtinadvancedeconomymembersoftheG20wasgreaterthantheincreaseinemergingmarketswiththeexceptionofArgentinaandIndia(Figure6).However,theunexpectedincreasesindebtfromlower-than-expectedrealgrowthweremoreprominentandwidespreadfollowingthestartofthepandemicrelativetotheGFC.Unexpectedlyweakrealgrowthoutturnsboosteddebtby10percentagepointsormoreofGDPtoArgentina,France,India,Italy,Japan,andtheUnitedKingdom.
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HeterogeneityalsomarksthedriversofdebtsurprisesduringthepandemicacrossG20countries.Stock-flowadjustmentsinCanadaandtheUnitedStatescontributedsignificantlytothedebtsurpriseinthosecountries.InCanada’scasethestock-flowadjustmentincludesamaterialunderprojectionofthedebt-to-GDPratioin2019,whichistheyearfromwhichthesurprisechangeinthedebtratioiscalculated.
Figure5.G20:CompositionoftheUnexpectedChangeinDebtin2009
(PercentofGDP)
Sources:Projectionsfordebtattheendof2009arebasedontheApril2008WEOandactualvaluesfor2009arefromtheApril2010WEO.GovernmentdebtdataisnotavailableforChinaandKoreaintheApril2008WEO.
Figure6.G20:CompositionoftheUnexpectedChangeinDebtin2020
(PercentofGDP)
IMFWORKINGPAPERSFiscalAnatomyofTwoCrisesandanInterlude
INTERNATIONALMONETARYFUND10
Sources:Projectionsfordebtattheendof2020arebasedontheJanuary2020WEOandactualvaluesfor2020arefromtheApril2022WEO.
TheRoleoffiscalmeasuresindebtdynamicsduringtheGFCandCOVID-19crises
ThedistributionofthemagnitudeofthecontributionoffiscalmeasurestodebtsurpriseswasbroadlysimilarwithinincomegroupsfollowingtheGFCandCOVID-19pandemic.Themediancontributiondifferedacrossincomegroups,however.Themediancontributionforadvancedandemergingmarketeconomieswassignificantlyhigherduringbothcrisesrelativetolow-incomecountries(Figure7).ThisfindinglikelyreflectsthemoremutedimpactoftheGFCinlow-incomecountriesaswellasthegeneralfinancingconstraintssuchcountriesfaced,particularlydu
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