syntax教学讲解课件

Chapter4Syntax4.1Whatissyntax?4.2Categories

4.3Phrasestructurerule4.4Phraseelements4.5Sentences(TheSrule)4.6Transformations.Theword

Syntax,derivedfromGreek,ismadeupof2morphemes:{syn}and{tax}.Theformermeans“_________”,andthelatter“___________”.Inlinguistics,

Syntax(句法学)isabranchthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.

Toputitsimple,itisthestudyoftheformationofsentences.togethertoarrange4.1Whatissyntax?.SinceSentenceisregardedasthelargestgrammaticalunitofalanguage,syntaxhaslongbeenthecentreofgrammaticalstudy.Differentlinguisticstheoriesfirstdifferintheirtreatmentofsentencestructure. 1.thetraditionalapproach(传统学派)； 2.thestructureapproach(结构主义学派)；

4.thefunctionalapproach(功能学派).3.thegenerativeapproach(生成学派)；AmericanlinguistsA.N.Chomsky(1928-).Thetraditionalapproachviewsasentenceasasequenceofwords.Thestudyofsentenceformationthusinvolvesthestudyof…ofwords.1.number(数),gender(性),case(格)2.tense(时态),aspect(体),voice(语态)3.concord(一致性)andgovernment(支配关系)Thetraditionalapproach(传统学派).ThisapproachwasstartedbytheSwisslinguistSaussure,thefatherofmodernlinguistics,inthebeginningofthe20thcentury.AllthelinguistictheoriesafterSaussurearestructuralinthattheyallregardlinguisticunitsasinterrelatedwitheachotherinastructure(orsystem),notasisolatedbits.Thestructureapproach(结构主义学派)1.Syntagmaticandparadigmaticrelation

横组合/纵聚合关系2.Immediateconstituent(直接成分)analysis3.Endocentric/exocentricconstructions

向心/离心结构.Syntagmatic(横组合)relationisarelationbetweenelementsthatoccurinasentence.Paradigmatic(纵聚合)relationisarelationbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceofastructure.

Theboykickedtheball.Theballkickedtheboy.Theboytheballkicked.Theboychasedthedog.现场所有成分之间的关系；词必须满足一些句法和语义条件。现场成分与不在现场成分之间的关系；词只受句法的限制。womansoldiertiger…….Immediateconstituentanalysis:Asentenceisnotonlylinearlyarranged,butalsohierarchically(层级)structured.Bloomfieldproposeditin1933.Theboykickedtheball.可用括号分析层级：词—词组—更大词组—句子；也可以用treestructure分层级。moreexpensiveclothes.endocentricconstructions向心结构thebooksontheshelfexocentricconstructions离心结构ontheshelfhead/center.Thisapproachoriginatedinthelate1950swiththeAmericanlinguistNoamChomsky,whograduallyestablishedthewell-knownTransformational-Generative(TG)Grammar.Fromitsbirthtothepresentday,TGGrammarhasseenseveralstagesofdevelopment.Thegenerativeapproach(生成学派)Deepstructureandsurfacestructure.Linguistswhoadoptthisapproachareinterestedinrelatingthevariouskindsoflinguisticstructuresandpatternstothefunctionsthatlanguageservesandtothesocialsettingsinwhichitisused.1.PragueLinguisticCircle(布拉格语言学会):

theme(主位)andrheme(述位)2.Systemic-FunctionalGrammar(系统功能语法)

Thefunctionalapproach(功能学派).对句子进行功能分析：theme(主位):

已知的信息或至少在给定环境中是明确的，说话者从它开始谈话。

rheme(述位)：说话者陈述的有关，或者涉及，话语起点的内容。Fatherwrotethisletter.Thisletterwaswrotebyfather.从已知到未知是自然的，叫做客观顺序；在感情叙述中可把述位放在主位前面，叫做主观顺序。.Theboykickedtheball.Theballwaskickedbytheboy.传统意义上的主语，承担了不同的功能。(1)动作者，“逻辑主语”，指行动的施动者；(2)情态主语，“语法主语”，是谓语表述的对象；(3)主位，“心理主语”，指信息的关注点；

Systemic-FunctionalGrammar(系统功能语法)Halliday尽力将语言功能和结构联系起来，认为有三种普遍的语言功能（P11）（1）Ideationalfunction(概念功能)（2）Interpersonalfunction(人际功能)（3）Textualfunction(语篇功能)..Category

(P42)referstowhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchas.4.2Categories(范畴)agroupoflinguisticitems1.word-levelcategories2.phrasecategories3.sentencesthegenerativeapproach(生成学派)asentence,anounphraseoraverb.Thetermcategoryinsomeapproachesreferstoinitsnarrowsense,e.g.noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc..Morespecifically,itreferstothecategoriesofthenouns,forexample,includenumber,gender,caseandcountability;andoftheverb,forexample,tense,aspect,voice,etc..syntaxcategories(句法范畴)(P43)classesandfunctionsthedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits：.Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword-levelcategories.(traditionally,partsofspeech)1.Howmanywordclassesdoyouknowabout?①traditionalcategories:n.,v.,adj.,adv.,prep.,conj.,aux.,pronoun….②non-traditionalcategories:determiner(Det限定词),degreewords(Deg程度词),qualifier(Qual修饰语).4.2.1Word-levelcategories.2.Whataremajor/minorlexicalcategories?①Majorlexicalcategoriesareoftenassumedtobetheheads(中心语/中心成分)aroundwhichphrasesarebuilt:n.,v.,adj.andprep..②Minorlexicalcategoriesinclude:determiner(Det限定词),degreewords(Deg程度词),qualifier(Qual修饰语)

andsoon.

(P43)3.Whatarethecriteriatodetermineaword’scategories?①meaning;②inflection;③distribution.(P44,L1)①聪明的；学生②怀疑；羡慕

doubted,envies

(主要/次要词汇范畴)Note:Themostreliablecriterionofdeterminingaword’scategoryisitsdistribution.

(P44)③shoulders,waters,concerned

shouldersone’swaydrinkthewaters

concernedoneselfwithPleasefinishEx.7onpage60..Syntacticunits1.definitionforphrasecategories2.twolevelsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrasecategories,suchasNP(N),VP(V),AP(A),PP(P).theprettygirlDetANNPwordlevelphraselevelP45,pleasedrawtreediagramsfortheother3phrases.4.2.2Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures.Thewordclassofthespecifierdiffersdependingonthecategoryofthehead.Specifierscanbedeterminers(限定词)asinNP,qulifiers(修饰语)asinVPanddegreewords(程度词)asinAPandPP.specifier+head+complement3.thestructureorelementsofphrasesthewordaround

whichaphraseisformed标志语中心语补足语thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsthewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsSemantically,specifiersmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead;syntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary..NP(Det)+N+(PP)…VP(Qual)+V+(NP)…AP(Deg)+A+(PP)…PP(Deg)+P+(NP)…

thosepeople,thefishontheplate,alwaysplaygames,verypessimistic,familiarwith,ontheshelf“consistsof”4.3Phrasestructurerules“theelementinitcanbeomitted”“othercomplementoptionsareavailable”Specifier+head+complement

规定组成一个短语的各组成部分的排列方式的语法机制即短语结构规则。（P45）.1.thetallmanwithglassesthatImet2.advisehiminawritingclassthatheshouldbuyanEnglishdictionary3.curiousoftheresultsthatnoonewasthere4.aftertheEnglishclass？Pleasedecidewhetherthefollowinglexicalitemsarephrases.Ifyes,pleaseidentifythephrasecategoriesbyfiguringouttheirheadsandthenanalyzetheirstructure.1.NP→(Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S)2.VP→V(NP)(PP)(S)3.AP→A(PP)(S)4.PP→P(NP)manadvisecuriousafter()()()(()()）.NP(Det)+N+(PP)…VP(Qual)+V+(NP)…AP(Deg)+A+(PP)…PP(Deg)+P+(NP)…

TheXPrulePhraseStructurerules

specifier+head+complementSpecifierXComplementHeadXPXP→(specifier)X(complement).XPrulespecifierXcomplementheadXPXP→(specifier)X(complement)XtheoryspecifierX(head)complementXPXwordlevelphraselevelintermediatelevela.XP(specifier)Xb.XX(complement)(X标杆理论)wordlevelphraselevel(P46)请分析：oftenreadstories.(并列规则P48)Coordinationstructuresthestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,etc.

boysandgirlsstayorleaveCoordinationrule.1.sing,dance,read…orwatchTV2.singsweetsongsordrawbeautifulpictures3.apples,bananas,oranges/singing,dancing4.optimisticandpassionate

Coordinationhasfourimportantproperties:Thereisnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesbeforetheconjunction.Acategoryatanylevelcanbecoordinated.(Ex.10,P60)Coordinatedcategoriesmustbeofthesametype.Thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.

X→X*ConX(P47)(并列规则P46)Coordinationrule请分析：singanddrawsingsongsanddrawpictures.HomeworkP60putonherclothesandwentoutExercise8:a,c,d,e(答案见PP27)Exercise10:a,b,c句中的并列结构.APNrichinmineralsPPAPEx.8P60AP(Deg)+A+(PP)…XPrule

(specifier+)head+complement.QualVANoftenreaddetectivestoriesNPVPVP(Qual)+V+(NP)…NP(Det)+N+(PP)…

specifier+head+complementVP(X).DetNPDetNtheargumentagainsttheproposalsPPNPNPNPNP(Det)+N+(PP)…PP(Deg)+P+(NP)…

(X)specifier+head+complement.DegPDetNalreadyabovethewindowPPNPPPPP(Deg)+P+(NP)…

NP(Det)+N+(PP)…(specifier+)head+complement..specifier+head+complement标志语中心语补足语4.4.1.specifiers

4.4.2.complements

4.4.3.modifiers

4.4Phraseelements.1.Semantically,specifiersmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead;syntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary.2.Thewordclassofthespecifierdiffersdependingonthecategoryofthehead. Specifierscanbedeterminers(限定词Det)asinNP,qulifiers(修饰语Qual)asinVPanddegreewords(程度词Deg)asinAPandPP.3.Theyareattachedtothetoplevelofphrasestructures.(Xtheory)Specifiers标志语specifier+head+complement.Complementsthemselvescanbeaphrase,theyprovideinformation(aboutentitiesandlocations)(whoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead).eg.

read;astory;putTheinformation(aboutaword’scomplement)isincluded(inthehead)andtermedsubcategorization

(次范畴化).

Complements补足语specifier+head+complement

.Acertainlexicalitemrequiresacertaintypeofcomplement.eg.

appear(vi.),cut(vt.),put(vt.)…Therecanbenocomplement,onecomplement,ormorethanonecomplementinaphrase,e.g.appear,break,put…Complements,howevermanythereare,occurtotherightoftheheadinEnglish.ThusthereisarevisedXPrule:XP→(specifier)X(complement*).Therecanbenocomplement,onecomplement,ormorethanonecomplementinaphrase,e.g.appear,break,put…;

asentence-likeconstructionmayalsofunctionasacomplementsuchasin

Ibelievedthat

shewasinnocent.

Idoubt

if

shewillcome.Wordswhichintroducethesentencecomplementarecalled

complementizers(Cs)(补语化成分).Thesentencesintroducedbycomplementizersarecomplementclause(补语从句)complementphrases(补语短语)(shortenedasCP)Theconstructioninwhichthecomplementphraseisembedded(嵌入)iscalled

matrixclause(主句)

.Thereisnolimitonthenumberofembeddedclausesthatcanoccurinasentencesinceeachcomplementcancontainaverbthatitselfpermitsacomplementphrases.MissHebertbelieves

thatshewillwinthegame

whichisorganizedbythenewcommittee

thatarefullyaware

thattheirtargettopromotethedevelopmentoffolkarts

that…XP→(specifier)X(complement*).NotallverbscantakeaCPcomplement.WordsthatcanCParenotverbsalone;As,NsandPscanalltakeCP.

ItemsHeads

Examples

Adjectivesafraid,certain,awareIwasafraid

thatnobodywouldbelieveme.

Nounsfact,claim,beliefShecan’tbelievethefact

thatshewouldfailintheexam.Prep.over,aboutTheyarguedover

whethershehadcometoclass.

.Modifiers

specifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads.(P51,L1)Modifiers修饰语ModifierPosition

Example

APprecedestheheadAverycareful

girlPPfollowstheheadopen

withcare

AdvPprecedesorfollowstheheadread

carefully;carefully

read

Ex.4(P65).XP→(specifier)(Mod)X(complement*)(Mod)XP→(specifier)X(complement*)XP→(specifier)X(complement)Pleaseanalyzethefollowingphrase:

1.opentheboxwithcare2.astoryaboutasentimentalgirl.NP(Det)+NNP(Spec)+N

VDetNPNopentheboxwithcareVPPPNPhead+complement+modifierPPP+(NP)PPP+(Complement)

VPV+(NP)+(PP)

VPV+(Complement)+(Mod)

.DetNPDetANastoryaboutasentimentalgirlPPNPNPNPNP(Spec)+（Mod）+NPPP+(Complement)

specifier+head+complement.1.陈述句2.疑问句（1）带有助动词(overtInflform)的一般疑问句（2）不带有助动词的一般疑问句（3）特殊疑问句4.5Sentences(theSrule)Sentencepatterns:.Det

NVDetNAboyfoundtheevidenceTraditionally:S→NPVPSNP(subject)VP(predicate)NPItassumesthatasentencedoesnothaveaninternalstructure:ahead,acomplementandaspecifier.4.5Sentences(theSrule).

Manylinguistsnowadays,however,believethatsentences,likeotherphrases,alsohavetheirownheads.Inflection(dubbed‘Infl’屈折变化)isanabstract

categoryastheirheads,whichindicatesthesentence’stenseandagreement.(P52)

Present:S→NPInflVPInflP(=S)NPVPInflthesubject,asspecifierasheadascomplement.InflP(=S)DetNVDetNAboyfoundtheevidencePstInflSNPVPNPheadInflrealizedbyatenselabel.DetNVDetNAboywillfindtheevidenceInflP(=S)NPVPNPSInflheadEx.3a,b,d,eP65Inflrealizedbyanauxiliary..Didtheboyfindtheevidence?Whatwillhedo?Atransformationisaspecialtypeofrulethatcanmoveanelementfromonepositiontoanother.Itcanbeinversion(倒置),insertion(插入)orotherkindsofmovement.4.6Transformations(转换).4.6.1Auxiliarymovement(inversion)4.6.2

Doinsertion4.6.3Deepstructure&surfacestructure4.6.4Wh-movement4.6Transformations(转换)(特殊疑问句)(不带有助动词的一般疑问句)(带有助动词的一般疑问句).InflP(=S)NPVPInflthesubject,asspecifierasheadascomplementAboywillfindtheevidence.Jimcanswimverywell.Willthetrainarrive?4.6.1Auxiliarymovement（助动词）.CTheyes-noquestionstructurearebuiltintwosteps:Step1:theusualXPruleisusedtoformastatement.Step2:formayes-noquestionusinginversion(倒置).DetNVThetrainwillarriveNPVPSInfl

InversionMoveInfltotheleftofthesubjectNP.complementizer(补语化成分)CPawordwhichintroducethesentencecomplement.

InversionMoveInfltoC.(P54)Willthetrainarrive?.Ccomplementclause(=S)complementphrases(CP)matrixclause(主句)

Ibelievedthat

shewasinnocent.

DetNVThetrainwillarriveNPVPSInflCCPAtrans-formationisaspecialtypeofrulethatcanmoveanelementfromonepositiontoanother..Pleaseanalyzethefollowingphrasebydrawingatreediagramforit:Shouldthestudentreporttheincident?CCPwillDetNVThetrainearriveNPVPSInflInfl(P55,Para.2&3)transformation(转移)inversion(倒置)headmovement(中心语移位)e(empty)&atrace(语迹).Theyes-noquestionstructurearebuiltintwosteps:Step1:theusualXPruleisusedtoformastatement.(Doinsertionisneeded)Step2:formayes-noquestionusinginversion(倒置).BirdsflySNPInflVPDobirdsfly?NVdoDoinsertion---InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.doCCPInfle4.6.2Doinsertion.Considerthefollowingpairofsentences:

Johniseasytoplease.Johniseagertoplease.Consideronemoresentence:

Flyingplanescanbedangerous.

1)Ifyouflyplanesyouareengagedinadangerousactivity;2)

Planesthatareflyingaredangerous.Structurallysimilar/samesentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings,fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures.4.6.3Deepstructure&surfacestructure（深层结构）（表层结构）=sb.pleasesJohn=Johnpleasessb..Deepstructure(orD-structure)

areformedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssubcategorization(次范畴化)properties;itcontainsalltheunitsandrelationshipsthatarenecessaryforinterpretingthemeaningofthesentence.eg.

Thedogs(thathekeeps)

bites.

Thedogs(hekeepswhat)bitesSurfacestructure(orS-structure)

isthefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations;itisthatofthesentenceasitispronouncedorwritten..surfacestructure:itisthatofthesentenceasitispronouncedorwritten.CCPwillDetNVThetrainearriveNPVPSInflInflWillthetrainarrive?DetNVThetrainwillarriveNPVPSInfldeepstructure:formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssubcategorizationpropertiesEx.8P66Ex.7P65.TheorganizationofthesyntacticcomponentofthegrammarTheXPruleDeepstructuretransformationsSurfacestructureSubcategorizationrestrictschoiceofcomplements(P58)

.Considerthederivationofthefollowingsentences:

Whatlanguagescanyouspeak?

Whatcanyoutalkabout?Thesesentencesmayoriginateas:

Youcanspeakwhatlanguages.Youcantalkaboutwhat.deepstructures4.6.4Wh-movementsurfacestructures.Wh-movementMoveawhphrasetothebeginningofthesentence.Whatlanguage

canyou

speak

?What

canyou

talkabout

?transformationinversioninversionwhmovementwhmovementLet’sanalyzethefollowingphrase:Whatshouldthestudentreport?Treediagram?.Wh-movementMoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCP.(Revised)1.Whphraseascomplementofaverborpreposition;2.Whphraseasasubject;(P60)3.Whmovementinrelativeclauses.(P61)Whatwillyoutalkabout?Whowonthegame?youwilltalkaboutWhatThedog(thathekeeps)bites.Thedog(hekeepswhat)bites..CCPDetNNVNVThedoghekeepswhatbitesCPCNPInflSVPNPVPSInflDeepstructureWh-movement

Moveawhphrasetothespecifier

positionunderCP..DetNNNVNVThedogthathekeepsebitesSurfacestructureCCPCPCNPInflSVPNPVPSInflNPwhmovement..DetNVThejetlandedNPVPInflP(=S)PstInflheadEx.3(a)P65.NVDegAMariebecameveryill.NPVPAPInflP(=S)PstInflheadEx.3(b)P65.DetNAuxVDetNTheapplemighthitthemanNPEx.3(d)P65InflP(=S)InflheadNPVP.NQualVA