Chapter-8pragmatics语言学第二版课件

ChapterEight

LanguageinUse

(Pragmatics)1.Introduction:DefinitionofPragmaticsPragmaticsisacomparativelynewbranchofstudyintheareaoflinguistics.Itdevelopedinthe1960sand1970s.Morrisfirstproposedtheword“pragmatics”inhis“FoundationsoftheTheoryofSigns”.Hesaidthatthestudyofsemioticsincludesthreeparts:syntax(signsign);semantics(signword);pragmatics(signitsuser).1977JournalofPragmaticspublishedinHollandsignifiedthestartofpragmatics.

Thestudyoflanguageinuse,thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.

Thestudyofmeaningincontext.Thestudyofspeakers’meaning,

utterancemeaning,&contextualmeaning.Speaker’smeaning

(Afatheristryingtogethis3-year-olddaughtertostopliftingupherdresstodisplayhernewunderweartotheassemble.)Father:Wedon’tDOthat.Daughter:IKNOW,Daddy.Youdon’tWEARdresses.

UtteranceMeaningvs.SentenceMeaningUtterancevs.SentenceSentence:abstractunitsofthelanguagesystem.Utterance:unitsoflanguageinuse.Sentencemeaning:WhatdoesXmean?Utterancemeaning:WhatdoyoumeanbyX?Utterancemeaningisbasedonsentencemeaning.Sentencemeaningisabstractandde-contextualizedandutterancemeaningisconcreteandcontext-dependent.

Ex.

1.Dog!2.Mybagisheavy.

It’scoldhere.

ContextualMeaning:meaningincontextThemeaningofthesentencedependsonwhothespeakeris,whotheheareris,whenandwhereitisused.ItwasahotChristmasdaysowewentdowntothebeachintheafternoonandhadagoodtimeswimmingandsurfing.Semanticmeaning:themoreconstant,inherentsideofmeaningPragmaticmeaning:themoreindeterminate,themorecloselyrelatedtocontext1.A:Areyougoingtotheseminar? B:It’sonlinguistics.2.A:Wouldyoulikesomecoffee? B:Coffeewouldkeepmeawake.3.A:我带的钱不够，今天买不了。 B:那就下次再买吧。

A意欲传递的意义B所获得的意义B通过T2意欲传递的意义交际结果1Y1Y1Y3—M(无误解)2Y1Y1Y4DMI3Y1Y2Y3M4Y1Y2Y4M5Y2Y2Y3DMI6Y2Y2Y4—M7Y2Y1Y3M8Y2Y1Y4MT1A:这件衣服很漂亮，可我今天带的钱不够。T2B:那就下次再买吧。Y1我带的钱不够，今天买不了。Y2我带的钱不够，你借钱给我买Y3你带的钱不够，就下次再买。Y4我不想借钱给你。Contextcontextisregardedasconstitutedbyallkindsofknowledgeassumedtobesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.Thenotionofcontextisessentialtothepragmaticsstudyoflanguage.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandhearer.Thesharedknowledgeisoftwotypes:(1)Theknowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse(2)Theknowledgeabouttheworld,includingthegeneralknowledgeabouttheworldandthespecificknowledgeaboutthesituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace.2.SpeechActTheoryJohnAustinHowtoDoThingswithWords(1962)speechacts:actionsperformedviautterancesConstativesvs.performativesConstatives:utteranceswhichroughlyservestostateafact,reportthatsomethingisthecase,ordescribewhatsomethingis,eg:IgototheparkeverySunday.IteachEnglish.

Performatives:utteranceswhichareusedtoperformacts,donotdescribeorreportanythingatall;theutteringofthesentenceisthedoingofanaction;theycannotbesaidtobetrueorfalse.Performativeverbs:name,bet,etc.Ido.InamethisshipQueenElizabeth.Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.Ipromisetofinishitintime.Iapologize.Idecarethemeetingopen.Iwarnyouthatthebullwillcharge.Felicityconditions:A.(i)Theremustbearelevantconventionalprocedure.(ii)therelevantparticipantsandcircumstancesmustbeappropriate.B.Theproceduremustbeexecutedcorrectlyandcompletely.C.Veryoften,therelevantpeoplemusthavetherequisitethoughts,feelingsandintentions,andmustfollowitupwithactionsasspecified.

ProblemswithfelicityconditionsNostrictprocedureforpromising.Ipromise.Igivemywordforit.Ibequeathmywatchtomybrother.(TorF?)Minister:addressingthegroom)

(Groom’sName),doyoutake(Bride’sName)foryourlawfulweddedwife,tolivetogetherafterGod’sordinance,intheholyestateofmatrimony?Willyoulove,honor,comfort,andcherishherfromthisdayforward,forsakingallothers,keepingonlyuntoherforaslongasyoubothshalllive?XXX，你是否愿意娶xxx为妻，按照圣经的教训与他同住，在神面前和她结为一体，爱她、安慰她、尊重她、保护他，像你爱自己一样。不论她生病或是健康、富有或贫穷，始终忠於她，直到离开世界？

Groom:Ido.FeaturesofperformativesThefirstpersonsingularSpeechactverbs/performativeverbs:ThepresenttenseIndicativemoodActivevoiceIpromisetobethere./I’llbethere.IadmitIwaswrong./Iwasfoolish.Iwarnyou,thisgunisloaded./Thisgunisloaded.Ithankyou./I’mverygrateful.Iapologize./I’msorry.Iorderyoutositdown./Youmustsitdown.Conclusion:Thedistinctionbetweenconstatives&performativescannotbemaintained.Allsentencescanbeusedtodothings.IllocutionaryActTheorySpeechactscanbeanalyzedon3levels:Alocutionaryact:theactofsayingsomethinginthefullsenseof“say”.Anillocutionaryact:anactperformedinsayingsomething.Tosaysthistodosth.InsayingX,IwasdoingY.

Insaying“Iwillcometomorrow”,Iwasmakingapromise.IllocutionaryforceAperlocutionaryact:theactpreformedbyorasaresultofsaying,theeffectsonthehearer.BysayingXanddoingY,IdidZ.Bysaying“Iwillcometomorrow”andmakingapromise,Ireassuremyfriends.Shoother!ClassificationofillocutionaryactsbySearleRepresentativesstatingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue.Thefilmismoving.Ihaveneverseenthemanbefore.Directivestryingtogetthehearertodosth,You’dbettergototheclinicOpenthewindow!Commisivescommittingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction.Ipromisetocomehereat7:00Expressivesexpressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate.It’sverykindofyoutohelpme.I’msorryforthemessIhavemadeDeclarationsbringaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsth.Iappointyoumonitoroftheclass.InowdeclarethemeetingopenAlltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurposebutdifferintheirforceorstrength.Iswearheisthekiller.(strongbelief)Ibelieve/thinkheisthekiller.(lessstrongbelief)Iguessheisthekiller.(weakerbelief)

3.ConversationalImplicaturePeopledonotusuallysaythingsdirectlybuttendtoimplythem.H.P.GriceWilliamJameslecturesatHarvardin1967LogicandConversationin1975Grice’stheoryLogicandConversation

isanattemptatexplaininghowahearergetsfromwhatissaidtowhatismeant,fromthelevelofexpressedmeaningtothelevelofimpliedmeaning.ImplicatureMakeyourcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.

MaximofQuality:Donnotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Donotsaysomethingifyoulackadequateevidence;MaximofQuantity:Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanrequired.MaximofRelation:

Berelative.MaximofManner:Beperspicuous.Avoidobscurityofexpression.Avoidambiguity.Bebrief.Beorderly.CPismeanttodescribewhatactuallyhappensinconversation.PeopletendtobecooperativeandobeyCPincommunication.However,CPisoftenviolated.SinceCPisregulative,CPcanbeviolated.ViolationofCPanditsmaximsleadstoconversationalimplicature.ConversationalimplicaturecanonlybeworkedoutonthebasisoftheCP.

conversationalimplicature

theextrameaningnotcontainedintheliteralutterances,underatandabletothelisteneronlywhenhesharesthespeaker’sknowledgeorknowswhyandhowheviolatesintentionallyoneofthefourmaximsofthecooperativeprinciple.

Violationofthemaxims(Quantity)Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired.

A:昨天上街买了些什么?B:就买了些东西。>Idon’twanttotellyouwhatIbought.DearSir,Mr.X’scommandofEnglishisexcellent,andhisattendanceattutorialshasbeenregular.Yours>Mr.Xisnotsuitableforthejob.2.

Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Aunt:HowdidJimmydohishistoryexam?Mother:Oh,notatallwell.Teachersaskedhimthingsthathappenedbeforethepoorboywasborn.>Hersonshouldnotbeblamed.A:Yourkidbrokethewindow.B:Boysareboys.>

Wariswar.>Violationofthemaxims(Quality)1.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Youarethecreaminmycoffee.Xrunsasfastasadeer.Heismadeofiron.2.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.A:BeirutisinPeru,isn’tit?B:AndRomeisinRomania,Isuppose.>It’sridiculous.Violationofthemaxims(Relation)Berelevant.A:Prof.Wangisanoldbag.B:Niceweatherforthetimeofyear.>Idon’twanttotalkaboutProf.Wang.萍：爸爸，不过四凤同鲁贵在家里都很好,很忠诚的。朴：嗯，我很累了。我预备到书房歇一下。你叫他们送一碗浓一点的普洱茶来。>

Violationofthemaxims(Manner)1.AvoidobscurityofexpressionA:Let’sgetthekidssomething.B:Ok,butIvetoC-H-O-C-O-L-A-TE.>Don’tgivethemchocolate.2.Avoidambiguity

A:Nameandtitle,please?B:JohnSmith,AssociateEditorandprofessor.CI:买一赠一。3.BebriefA:Didyougetmyassignment?B:Ireceivedtwopagesclippedtogetherandcoveredwithrowsofblacksquiggles.>notsatisfied.CharacteristicsofimplicatureCalculability:hearersworkoutimplicaturebasedonliteralmeaning,CPanditsmaxims,context,etc.Cancellability/defeasibility:

Ifthelinguisticorsituationalcontextschanges,theimplicaturewillalsochange.A:Doyouwantsomecoffee?B:Coffeewouldkeepmeawake.Idonotlikecoffee.B:Coffeewouldkeepmeawake.Iwanttostayup.

Non-detachability:implicatureisattachedtothesemanticcontentofwhatissaid,nottothelinguisticform;implicaturesdonotvanishifthewordsofanutterancearechangedforsynonyms.A:Shallwegothecinematonight?B:There’llbeanexamtomorrow.I’lltakeanexamtomorrow.Isn’tthereanexamtomorrow?Non-conventionality:implicatureisdifferentfromitsconventionalmeaningofwords.Itiscontext-dependent.Itvarieswithcontext.A1：下午踢球去吧！A2：老王住院了？B：上午还在换草皮。A3:足球场安装了一个新门柱。4.PolitenessPrincipleGrice’sCPdoesnotexplainwhyspeakersoftenviolateCP.Leech(1983)putsforwardPPtosaveCP.A:We’llmissBillandMary,won’twe?B:Well,we’llallmissBill.(violationofquantitymaxim)Self(自身)referstothespeaker.Other(他人)referstotheaddresseeorathirdperson,presentornot.Benefit(惠)&Cost(损)Generallyspeaking,ifther