语言学概论第6章重点

Chapter

6

Syntax

句法学6.1

Syntax：definition

定义Syntax

is

a

study

of

sentences:sentence

structure

and

formation

句法学就是对句子的学习。Syntax

can

be

defined

as

the

branch

of

linguistics

that

studies

how

the

words

of

a

language

can

be

combined

to

make

larger

units,

such

as

phrases,

clauses

and

sentences.

语法可以被定义为语言学的分支研究语言的词汇如何被合并成更大的单位,比如短语和句子,从句。It

studies

the

interrelationships

between

elements

of

the

sentence

structure

and

the

rules

governing

the

production

of

sentences.

它研究句子中各种成分之间的关系。句法研究语言的句子结构。Finite(有限的)number

of

words

and

small

set

of

rules

can

create

infinite

number

of

sentences.有限的单词和少量规则能创造无穷尽的句子。Syntactic

knowledge:

the

intuition

of

a

native

speaker

about

how

words

are

combined

to

be

phrases

and

and

how

phrases

are

combined

into

sentences.

句法知识:说话者用直觉知道母语词汇如何结合成词组和短语如何组合成的句子。6.2

Grammar，syntax

and

morphology

语法、句法学和形态学Grammar

：“the

knowledge

and

study

of

the

morphological

and

syntactic

regularities

of

a

natural

language.

”It

excludes

phonetics,

phonology,

semantics.

语法是关于自然语言形态规则和句法规则的知识和研究。它在语音学，音位学，语义学之外。Grammar

includes

morphology

and

syntax.语法包括形态学和句法学。1）Morphology

studies

the

internal

structures

of

words

and

word

formation

processes.

形态学是语法的一部分，是研究词语的内部结构和构词过程的语言学分支学科。2）Syntax

is

concerned

with

the

relationships

between

words

and

phrases

within

a

sentence.

它研究句子中词和短句之间的关系。句子用两种不同方式学习：Statically(静态的):

we

can

describe

the

structures

of

sentences

to

illustrate

the

relationship

among

the

elements

of

a

sentence；我们可以描述句子结构之间的关系来说明句子的元素。

Dynamically（动态地）:we

can

study

how

sentences

are

generated

by

syntactic

rules.

我们可以学习生成的句子的语法规则。6.3

syntagmatic,

paradigmatic

and

hierarchical

relations横组合、纵聚合和等级关系

Syntagmatic

is

a

fundamental

term

in

linguistics，to

refer

to

the

sequential

characteristics

of

speech，seen

as

a

string

of

constituents

in

linear

order.

The

relationships

between

constituents

(syntagms

or

syntagmas

组成成分)in

a

construction

are

generally

called

syntagmatic

relations.

横组合是语言学的基本术语，横组合关系指一个单位和同一序列中的其他单位之间的关系，或共现的所有成分间的关系。Sets

of

syntagmatically

related

constituents

are

called

structures.横组合关系的成分被称为结构。

Paradigmatic

relations

or

associative

relations

refers

to

the

set

of

relations

a

linguistc

unit

has

with

other

units

in

a

specific

context.

聚合关系或关联关系是指语言单位和其他单位在特定上下文间的关系。Paradigmatic

relations

hold

between

an

item

and

similar

ones

that

can

appear

in

the

same

position

in

a

sequence.纵聚合关系指在结构的某个特殊位置上彼此可以相互替换的成分之间的关系。

Paradigmatic

relations

refer

to

the

relations

between

the

linguistic

elements

within

a

sentence

and

those

outside

the

sentence.

纵聚合关系指句子内外语言元素之间的关系。Classes

of

paradigmatically

related

elements

are

called

system,

like

“person

system(人称系统)“case

system”（格位系统）。Syntactic

categories(句法范畴)

refer

to

the

linguistic

forms

that

have

paradigmatic

relations（纵聚合关系）.

They

include

lexical

categories(词汇范畴)

and

non-lexical

categories.

Lexical

categories:

•

名词Noun(N):

book,

table.

•

动词Verb(V);

hit,

tell

•

形容词Adjective(Adj):

good,

bad

•

副词Adverb

(Adv):

greatly

•

限定词Determiner

(Det):

a,

this,

his,

•

介词Preposition(

P):

on

in

•

连词conjunction(

Conj);

and

if

•

感叹词Interjection

(Int):

oh,

ah

Phrasal

categories（短句范畴）:

•

名词短语Noun

phrase

(NP):

a

book

•

动词短语Verb

phrase

(VP):

sing

a

song

•

形容词短语Adjective

phrase

(AP):

very

good

•

副词短语Adverb

phrase

(ADVP):

very

well,

•

助动词短语Auxiliary

phrase

(AUX):tense

model,

tense

perf

•

介词短语Prepositional

phrase

(PP):

in

the

room

Hierarchical

structure(层次结构)

refer

to

the

inner

layering(内部层次关系)

of

sentences,

that

is,

sentences

consisting

of

phrases

and

phrases

in

turn

are

composed

of

words.

Hierarchical

structure

can

be

analysed

by

IC

analysis,

labeled

IC

analysis,

phrase

markers

and

labeled

bracketing.

层次结构可用直接成分分析、带标记的直接成分分析、短语标记语、带标记括弧法来分析。6.4

IC

Analysis,

labeled

IC

Analysis,

phrase

markers,

and

labeled

bracketing

直接成分分析、带标记的直接成分分析、短语标记语、带标记括弧法IC

Analysis

is

a

kind

of

grammatical

analysis，which

refers

to

the

major

divisions

that

can

be

made

within

a

syntactic

construction，at

any

level.

To

put

it

in

a

simple

way，we

can

divide

the

words

of

a

sentence（or

a

morphemes

of

a

word）

into

two

groups,

and

then

divide

each

group

into

sub-groups

and

so

on,

until

the

single

words

of

the

sentences（or

single

morphemes

of

the

word）.

直接成分分析是一种语法分析,它指的是可以组成句法结构的任何级别的主要部分。用一个简单的方法,我们可以把一个句子的话(或一个单词的语素)分成两组,然后将每个小组再分成小组等等,直到剩简单的单词(或单语素的词)。IC

Analysis=immediate-constituent

analysis（constituent

analysis）It

was

a

major

feature

of

Bloomfieldian

Structuralist

linguistics(布龙菲尔德结构主义语言学的主要特征)

Immediate

constituents直接成分Ultimate

constituents

最终成分（树型图底部的部分）Constituen成分:

all

the

forms

except

the

one

at

the

top---the

sentence

itself

One

advantage

of

IC

Analysis

is

to

reveal

the

structural

ambiguity(结构性歧义)

Labeled

IC

Analysis（带标记的直接成分分析）:

to

label

the

grammatical

categories

of

each

constituents

and

the

sentences.

把语法类别的每个成分和句子标明。As

the

IC

Analysis

is

too

redundant(重复的)and

troublesome,

the

phrase

markers(短语标记法)are

advanced.

Labeled

bracketing(方括标记法)is

also

applied

in

representing（表示）

the

hierarchical

structure

（分层结构）of

sentence.

6.5

Constituency

and

Dependency成分关系、依存关系Constituency(成分关系):

It

is

to

divide

a

sentence

into

a

series

of

constituents

which

can

be

analysed

into

further

constituents

until

no

further

division

is

possible.

它是一个句子划分为一系列可分析的成分一直分到不能再除去。Constituents

structure

analysis

is

a

hierarchical

analysis

showing

the

different

constituents

at

different

structural

levels

based

on

the

distribution

of

linguistic

forms.

成分结构分析是一个层次分析显示不同结构水平的不同的成分，基于语言形式的分布。Dependency

grammar(依存语法)is

a

type

of

formal

grammar，developed

by

several

linguists

in

the

1950s（in

particular，the

French

linguist

Lucien

Tesniere）which

establishes

types

of

dependencies

between

the

elements

of

a

construction

as

a

means

of

explaining

grammatical

relationships.

(依存语法)是一种正式的语法,由几个语言学家在1950年代(特别是法国语言学家吕西安Tesniere),建立了建筑中各元素的依存种类，作为一种解释语法关系的手段。In

a

syntactic

connection

（句法联系）between

two

elements

one

is

the

governing

element(支配因素)

and

the

other

is

the

dependent

element(依存因素).When

a

governing

element

is

dependent

on

another

governing

element,

a

complex

hierarchical

dependecy

order

results.

在依存语法看来,在句子的每两个要素或成分之间,一个是支配要素/成分,另一个则是依存要素/成分。如果一个支配成分依存于另一个支配成分,则形成了一个复杂的等级依存顺序。

In

a

sentence,

the

absolute

governor

is

the

verb.

每一个句子当中,绝对的支配者是动词。6.6

TG

Grammar(转换生成语法)

6.6.1表层结构和深层结构（

Surface

structures

and

deep

structures）静态学习Static

study

of

language

deals

with

only

surface

structure(表层结构);

动态学习dynamic

study

of

language

deals

with

both

surface

structure

and

deep

structure.

Sentence

generation(句子的生成)always

starts

with

the

deep

structure

and

then

transforms

it

into

its

surface

structure.

句子生成总是先从深层结构开始,然后把它转换为它的表面结构。

Deep

structures

are

generated

by

phrase

structure

rules

(短语结构规则)while

surface

structures

are

derived

from

their

deep

structures

by

the

transformational

rules.

深层结构是由短语结构规则产生的而表面结构是来源于他们的深层结构的转换规则。The

whole

process

can

be

represented

by:

Phrase

structure

rules（PS

rules）↓↓

deep

structures

↓↓T-rules（transformational

rules）↓↓

surface

structures

Diffenrences:表面结构和深层结构的不同1）

Surface

structures

correspond

directly

to

the

linear

arrangements

of

sentences;

while

deep

structures

correspond

to

the

meaningful

grouping

of

sentences.

表面结构直接对应句子的线性排列;而深层结构对应于句子的有意义的分组。2）

Surface

structures

are

more

concrete

while

deep

structures

are

more

abstract.

表面结构更具体而深层结构更抽象。3）

Surface

structures

give

the

forms

of

sentences

whereas

deep

structures

give

the

meanings

of

sentences

表面结构产生句子的形式而深层结构产生句子的含义4）

Surface

structures

are

pronounceable

but

deep

structures

are

not.

表面结构可发音的但深层结构不能6.6.2

phrase

structure

rules

短语结构规则•

S→NP

AUP

VP

He

is

working.

•

NP

→(Det)(AP)N

those

old

books

•

AP

→{(AP)/(ADVP)}Adj

very

old

•

VP

→V{(NP)(PP)(S)/(AP)(ADVP}

•

run

fast,

get

to

the

school

•

PP

→P

NP

in

the

box

•

AUX

→Tense(Modal)(Perf)(Prog)

•

Tense

→{present/past}

was

is

•

Modal

→can,may,must,will,shall,could…

•

Perf

→have-EN

(完成体)

•

Prog

→be-ING

(进行体)

The

constituents

put

in

the

parentheses

are

called

optional

constituents

because

they

may

be

present

or

absent

on

the

right

side

of

the

arrow.

这个成分放在括号被称为可选成分,因为他们可能会离开身外的右边的箭头。And

the

constituents

which

must

be

present

on

the

right

side

of

the

arrow

are

called

compulsory

constituents.必须出现在右边的箭头的成分被称为强制成分。深层结构中动词词组要注意这两点：1）

the

verbs

in

VP

always

take

the

base

form

and

the

inflectional

endings

of

verbs

are

part

of

the

auxiliary

phrase在动词短语中的动词总是基础形式并且动词的屈折结尾部分是助动词短语的部分。2）

verbs

in

VP

are

main

verbs

while

all

the

other

helping

verbs

are

part

of

AUX动词短语里的动词是主要动词而所有其他帮助动词是辅助词6.6.3

transformational

rules(转换规则)

transformational

rules

are

used

to

transform

deep

structures

into

surface

structures,

which

involves

a

series

of

T-rules.

The

more

T-rules

are

applied,

the

more

concrete

the

structure

becomes

and

the

closer

it

is

to

its

surface

structure.

转换规则用于转换成表面结构的深层结构,其中涉及一系列转换规则。更多的转换规则应用，使更多的具体的结构变得越接近其表面结构。deep

structure

↓

by

T-rules(1)

modified

structure

(1)

↓

by

T-rules(2)

modified

structure

(2)

↓„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„by

T-rules(n)

surface

structure

Each

T-rule

performs

one

or

two

of

the

following

three

operations:1）rearranging

the

elements

of

the

structure;

2）adding

a

new

element

to

the

structure;3）deleting

an

element

from

the

structure.

每个转换规则执行一个或两个以下三个操作:1)重新安排元素的结构;2)添加一个新元素的结构;3)删除一个元素的结构。Each

transformational

rule

consists

of

two

parts:

1）the

structural

description(SD);

2）structural

change(SC).

In

the

description

of

the

deep

structure,

X,Y,Z

can

be

used

as

the

variables(变量)

每个转换规则由两部分组成:1)结构描述(SD);2)结构变化(SC)。在深层结构的描述,X,Y,Z可以用作变量。•

T-Affix（词缀转换规则）•

T-Passive(被动转换规则)

•

T-agent

deletion（删除施事者转换规则）

•

T-negation（否定转换规则）•

T-Do

insertion（助动词do插入转换规则）

•

T-Yes

or

No

question（一般疑问句转换规则）

•

T-Wh-word

insertion（疑问词插入转换规则）

•

T-Reflexive（反身代词转换规则）

•

T-Imperative（祁使句转换规则）•

Of

all

the

T-rules,

T-Affix

hopping

is

obligatory

while

others

are

optional.

在所有的转换规则里，词汇转换规则是必要的，其他是选择性的The

ordering

of

transformational

rules:

特别要注意的是，转换规则的顺序很重要：

If

the

ordering

is

not

followed,

the

transformation

will

produce

ill-formed

sentences

or

be

blocked

up.

如果排序不对,转换会产生不规范的句子或被堵塞。1)

T-Reflexive

must

be

applied

before

T-Imperative.

2)

T-Passive

must

be

applied

before

T-Reflexive.

3