笔记新编简明英语语言学教程复习资料

ChapteroneIntroduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.2.普通语言学GeneralLinguisticsThestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledGenerallinguistics.3.语言languageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.语言是人类用来交际任意性有声符号体系。4.识别特征DesignFeaturesItreferstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区分与其余任何动物交际体系限定性特征。Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性（创造性）Duality双重性Displacement移位性Culturaltransmission文化传递5.语言能力Competence（抽象）Competenceistheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.6.语言利用performance（详细）Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.语言利用是所掌握规则在语言交际中详细表现。7.历时语言学DiachroniclinguisticsThestudyoflanguagechangethroughtime.adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy,whichstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.8.共时语言学SynchronicallinguisticsThestudyofagivenlanguageatagiventime.9.语言langue（抽象）Theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofaspeechcommunity.10.言语parole（详细）Therealizationoflangueinactualuse.11.要求性PrescriptiveItaimstolaydownrulesfor”correct”behavior,totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhatshouldnotsay.12.描述性DescriptiveAlinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.二、知识点1.languageisnotanisolatedphenomenon,it’sasocialactivitycarriedoutinacertainsocialenvironmentbyhumanbeings.语言不是一个孤立现象，而是人类在一定社会环境下进行一个社会活动。2.几个观点和现象提出者：⑴瑞士语言学家F.deSaussure:Langue和parole区分⑵美国语言学家N.Chomsky:in1950针对Saussure’slangue&parole提出Competence和performance⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义语言学家Sapir---languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicationideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.Hall----languageistheinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.Chomsky---fromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.⑷美国语言学家CharlesHockett:提出了语言识别特征designfeatures3.theword’language’precededbythezero-article,itimpliesthatlinguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage.Language一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一个特定语言。4.inordertodiscoverthenatureoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,whatthelinguistshastodofirstiftostudylanguagefacts.5.languageisacomplicatedentitywithmultiplelayersandfacts,soit'shardlypossibleforthelinguisticstodealwithitallatonce.判断题6.Fristdrewtheattentionofthelinguistswerethesoundsusedinlanguages.最先引发语言学家注意是语言发音。三、问答题1.whataremajorbranchesoflinguistics?whatdoeseachstudy?Phonetics----it’sdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage,it’sconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.Phonology---thestudyofsoundssystems—theinventoryofdistinctivesoundsthatoccurinalanguageandthepatternsintowhichtheyfall.Morphology---It’sabranchofagrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Syntax-------it'sasubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureofalanguage.Semantics---It’ssimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginabstraction.Pragmatics---thestudyofmeaningincontextofwords.Sociolinguistics—thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety.Psycholinguistics---thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofthemind.Appliedlinguistics---theapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning.2.whydowesaylanguageisarbitrary?Languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenthesoundsthatpeopleuseandtheobjectstowhichthesesoundsrefer.Thefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferentwordsforthesameobjectisagoodillustrationofthearbitrarynatureoflanguage,it’sonlyourtacitagreementofutteranceandconceptatworkandnotanyinnaterelationshipboundupintheutterance.Atypicalexampletoillustratethe‘arbitrariness’oflanguageis‘arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet’.3.whatmakesmodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?Modernlinguisticsisdescriptive,itsinvestigationsarebasedonauthenticandmainlyspokenlanguagedate.当代语言学是描述性，其研究以确实可靠、主要以口语形式资料为基础。traditionalgrammarisprescriptive.itisbasedon’high’writtenlanguage.传统语法是要求性，研究‘高级’书面语。4.Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?whyModernlinguisticsismainlysynchronic,focusingonthepresent-daylanguage.unlessthevariousstatesofalanguagearesuccessfullystudied,itwillnotbepossibletodescribelanguagefromadiachronicpointofview.当代语言学主要是共时性，重点研究当代语言。除非对语言各种状态都进行成功研究，不然极难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。5.whichenjoyspriorityinmodernlinguistics,speechorwritings?Speechenjoysforthefollowingreasons:⑴Speechprecedeswritingintermsofevolution.⑵Alargeamountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechthaninwriting.⑶speechistheforminwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativelanguage.6.howisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky’s?BothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandtheactualuseoflanguage.theirpurposeistosingleoutthelanguagesystemforseriousstudyTwolinguistsideadifferinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguage,Chomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofview,competenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.6.thedistinctionbetweenlangueandparole?⑴langueisabstract,relativelystable⑵paroleisconcrete,variesfrompersontoperson,fromsituationtosituation.1/Whatislinguistics?什么是语言学？Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.2/Thescopeoflinguistics语言学研究范围Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.(普通语言学)Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalledphonetics.（语音学）Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.（音位学）Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalledmorphology.（形态学）Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax（句法学）Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.（语义学）Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.（语用学）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsocio-linguistics.（社会语言学）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycho-linguistics.（心理语言学）Thestudyofapplications(astherecoveryofspeechability)isgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics.（应用语言学）Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguage.Otherrelatedbranchesincludeanthropologicallinguistics,（人类语言学）neurologicallinguistics,（神经语言学）mathematicallinguistics,（数字语言学）andcomputationallinguistics.（计算机语言学）3/Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics语言学研究中几对基本概念Prescriptiveanddescriptive要求与描写Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive,ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar.Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhilemodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.Thetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whetheritis“correct”ornot.Synchronicanddiachronic共时和历时Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyismoreimportant.Speechandwriting口头语与书面语Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,butnotthewrittenform.Reasonsare:1.Speechprecedeswriting;2.Therearestillmanylanguagesthathaveonlythespokenform;3.Intermsoffunction,thespokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalargerloadofcommunicationthanthewritten.Langueandparole语言和言语TheSwisslinguistF.deSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20thcentury.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.Competenceandperformance语言能力和语言利用ProposedbyAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.Hedefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Hebelievesthetaskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifythelanguagerules.ChapterTwoPhonology一、定义1.宽式音标BroadtranscriptionThetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithlettersymbolsonly.2.窄式音标NarrowtranscriptionThetranscriptionofspeechsoundwithletterssymbolsandthediacritics.3.清音VoicelessWhenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thesoundsproducedinsuchaconditionarecalledvoicelesssounds.4.浊音VoicingSoundsproducedwhilethevocalcordsarevibratingarecalledvoicedsounds.5.元音VowelThesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheairstreampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionarecalledvowels.6.辅音ConsonantsThesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltractarecalledconsonants.7.音位PhonemeThebasicunitinphonology,it’sacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.8.音位变体AllophonesDifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.9.音素phoneAphoneticunitorsegment.itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,it’saspeechsoundweusewhenspeakingalanguage.10.最小对立对MinimalpairWhentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.11.超切分特征SuprasegmentalThephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonationandtone.12.互补分布complementarydistributionP35Twoallophonesofthesamephonemearesaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.13.语言语音媒介PhonicmediumoflanguageThelimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinteresttolinguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage.在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限声音是语音媒介。14.爆破音stopsWhenaobstructioncreatedbythespeechorgansistotalorcomplete,thespeechsoundproducedwiththeobstructionreleasedandtheairpassingoutagainiscalledastoporaplosive.theyare[b][p][t][d][k][g]二、知识点1.statisticsresultingfromcarefulinvestigationsshowthattherehavebeenover5,000languagesintheworld,abouttwothirdsofwhichhavenothadwrittenform.2.ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwriting.3.Phonetic组成⑴Articulatoryphonetics发音语音学longestestablished,mostlydeveloped⑵Auditoryphonetics听觉语音学⑶Acousticphonetics声学语音学4.articulatoryApparatus/OrgansofSpeechPharyngealcavity–咽腔Oralcavity–口腔greatestsourceofmodificationofairstreamfoundhereNasalcavity–鼻腔5.Thetongueisthemostflexible,responsibleformorevarietiesofarticulationthananyother,theextremebackofthetonguecanberaisedtowardstheuvulaandaspeechsoundcanbethusproducedasisusedinArabicandFrench.6.Obstructionbetweenthebackofthetongueandthevelararearesultsinthepronunciationof[k]and[g],thenarrowingofspacebetweenthehardpalateandthefrontofthetongueleadstothesound[j];theobstructioncreatedbetweenthetipofthetongueandthealveolarridgeresultsinthesounds[t]and[d].7.nasalconsonants:[m]/[n]/[η]8.APhoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.9.Sequentialrules例子Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules:⑴thefirstphonememustbe/s/⑵thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/⑶thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w10.Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:Fallingtone;Risingtone;Fall-risetone;Rise-falltone三、问答题1.whatarethethreebranchesofphonetics?howdotheycontributetothestudyofspeechsound?Articulatory—describesthewayourspeechorgansworktoproducethespeechsoundsandhowtheydiffer.Auditory-–studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,reachestheimportantconclusionthatphoneticidentityisonlyatheoreticalideal.Acoustic-–studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,thewaysoundtravelfromthespeakertothehearer.发音语音学描述了我们发音器官怎样发出语音，以及这些语音为何有所不一样。听觉语音学研究语音物理性质，得出了主要结论，即语音同一只是理论上理想。声学语音学研究语音物理性质，研究语音从说话者到听话者之间传输方式。2.howaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?ByplaceofarticulationandBymannerofarticulation3.howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?whodoyouthinkwillbemoreinterestedinthedifferentbetweensay[i]and[i],[p]and[ph],aphoneticianoraphilologist?why?语音学和音位学研究中心有何不一样?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清楚音区分?为何?Phonetics—descriptionofallspeechsoundsandtheirfinddifferences.Phonology—descriptionofsoundsystemsofparticularlanguagesandhowsoundsfunctiontodistinguishmeaning.Aphoneticianwouldbemoreinterestedinsuchdifferencescossuchdifferenceswillnotcos4.what’saphone?howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?Phone—aspeechsound,aphoneticunit.Phoneme---acollectionofabstractsoundfeatures,aphonologicalunit.Allophones---actualrealizationofaphonemeindifferentphoneticcontexts.5.whatisaminimalpairandaminimalset?whyisitimportanttoidentifytheminimalsetinalanguage?为何区分最小对立组在一个语言中非常主要?Minimalpair—twosoundcombinationsidenticalineverywayexceptinonesoundelementthatoccursinthesameposition.除了出现在同一位置一个语音成份不一样外,其余部分都一样两个语音组合.Minimalset—agroupofsoundcombinationswiththeabovefeature.一组具备上述特征语音组合.Byidentifyingtheminimalpairortheminimalsetofalanguage,aphilologistcanidentifyitsphonemes.经过分析一个语言最小对立对或最小对立组,音位学家能分辨出它音位.6.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowonetranscriptiondiffer?Broadtranscription—onelettersymbolforonesound.Narrowtranscription—diacriticsareaddedtotheone-lettersymbolstoshowthefinerdifferencesbetweensounds.7.explainthesequentialrule,theassimilationruleandthedeletionrule.序列规则SequentialrulesRulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.同化规则AssimilationrulesTheassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby’copying’afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.省略规则DeletionruleIt’saphonologicalrulewhichtellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitsorthographicallyrepresented.ChapterThreeMorphology一、定义1.词素MorphemeThebasicunitinthestudyofmorphologyandthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.2.自由词素FreeMorphemeFreemorphemesareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves.3.黏着词素BoundmorphemesBoundmorphemesarethesemorphemesthatcanotbeusedbythemselves,mustbecombinedwithothermorphemestoformwordsthatcanbeusedindependently.4.词根RootRootisthebaseformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.5.词缀AffixThecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.6.波折词缀inflectionalaffixesThemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,tense,degreeandcase.7.派生词缀DerivationalaffixesThemanifestationofrelationbetweenstemsandaffixesthroughtheadditionofderivationalaffixes.8.词干StemAstemistheexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeadded.astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.9.形态学规则MorphologicalrulesTheyarerulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypeofstemtoformanewword.10.前缀PrefixPrefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword,exceptionsaretheprefixes‘be-‘and‘en(m)-‘11.后缀SuffixSuffixesareaddedtotheendofstems,theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.3.Inusingthemorphologicalrules,wemustguardagainstOver-generalization.二、知识点Inflectionalmorphology1.MorphologyDerivationalmorphologyFreemorphemesMorphemesRootBoundmorphemesInflectionalaffixesAffixesPrefixDerivationalaffixes2.somewordsmaybesaidtocontainarootmorpheme.Suffix4.Compoundfeatures:⑴orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasoneword,twoseparatewordswithorwithoutahypheninbetween.⑵Syntactically,thepartofspeechofacompoundisdeterminedbythelastelement.⑶semantically,themeaningofacompoundisidiomatic,notcalculablefromthemeaningsofallitscomponentChapterFourSyntax一、定义1.句子sentenceAstructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatement,questionorcommand.2.语言利用LinguisticcompetenceThesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeaker.3.谓语PredicateThepartofasentencewhichcomprisesafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsayssomethingaboutthesubjectisgrammaticallycalledpredicate.4.定式子句FiniteClauseAclausethattakesasubjectandafiniteverb,andatthesametimestandsstructurallyalone.5.隶属子句EmbeddedClause(EC)Inacompletesentence,theincorporatedorsubordinateclauseisnormallycalledanEC.6.主要子句MatrixClauseInacomplexedsentence,theclauseintowhichitisembeddediscalledamatrixclause.7.层次结构HierarchicalstructureThesentencestructurethatgroupswordsintostructuralconstituentsandshowsthesyntacticcategoriesofeachstructuralconstituent,suchasNPandVP.8.语法关系GrammaticalrelationsThestructuralandlogicalfunctionalrelationsbetweeneverynounphraseandsentence.9.句法类型SyntacticcategoryAwordorphrasethatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunctionsuchasthesubjectorobject.10.表层结构S-structureAlevelofsyntacticrepresentationaftertheoperationofnecessarysyntacticmovement.11.深层结构D-structureAlevelofsyntacticrepresentationbeforetheoperationofnecessarysyntacticmovement.12.普遍语法GeneralgrammarAsystemoflinguisticknowledgewhichconsistsofsomegeneralprinciplesandparametersaboutnaturelanguage.13.移动α规则MoveαAgeneralmovementruleaccountingforthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.14.句法移位SyntacticmovementSyntacticmovementoccurswhenaconstituentmovesoutofitsoriginalplacetoanewposition.15.转换标准TransformationrulesSyntacticmovementisdictatedbyrulestraditionallycalledtransformationalrules,whoseoperationmaychangethesyntacticrepresentationofasentence.16.X标杆理论X-bartheoryAgeneralandhighlyabstractschemathatcollapsesallphrasesstructurerulesintoasingleformat:X”→（Spec）X(Compl).一个泛指、高度抽象图示，它把全部词组结构规则概括为一个程式X”→（Spec）X(Compl)a:X”b:X”SpecX’SpecX’X’XcomplXcomplementNP’thestudentwholikeslinguistics’consistsofDet,NandSwithDetbeingtheSpecifier,Nthehead,Sthecomplement.NP(…)有冠词、名词和子句组成，冠词是指示语，名词是关键词，子句是补足语。二、知识点1.syntax这个单词源于Greek,本义是arrangement.2.我们把syntax学习看作asystemofrulesthatgoverntheformationofgrammaticalsentence.3.Amajorgoaloflinguisticsistoshowwithaconsistentandexplicitgrammaticaltheoryhowsyntacticrulesaccountforthisgrammaticalknowledge.4.判断题：thesyntacticrulesofanylanguagearefiniteinnumber,andyetthereisnolimittothenumberofsentencesnativespeakersofthatlanguageareabletoproduceandcomprehend.5.判断题:Afiniteverb,informallycalledthemainverbofasentence,expressesexistence,actionoroccurrencewhichislimitedbyperson,number,tenseandmood.一个限定动词被非正式称为句中主要动词，表示了人称、数、时态、语气限定存在、行动或事件。6.句子分类simplesentenceTypesofsentencescoordinateorcompoundsentenceComplexsentence简单句---Itconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.并列句合成句-Itcontainstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,suchas“but”,”and”.ect.复合句—Itcontainstwoormoreclauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.复合句特点：⑴Anembeddedclausefunctionsasagrammaticalunitinitsmatrixclause⑵MostembeddedclausesrequireanintroductorywordcalledaSubordinator,suchas”that”⑶Anembeddedclausemaynotfunctionasagrammaticallywell-formedsentenceifitstandsindependentlyasasimplesentenceunlessitsformchanges.子句是一个语法单位，大部分子句要带一个被称为隶属连词引导词，假如子句作为秒年第秒年句单独存在，它可能不是一个合乎规范句子，除非改变他形式。7.whenasentenceisutteredorwrittendown,thewordsofthesentenceareproducedoneafteranotherinasequence.8.Thehierarchicalnatureofsentencestructure句子结构层次特点sentencesareorganizedwithwordsofthesamesyntacticcategory,suchasnounphraseNPorverbphraseVP,groupedtogether.9.ThepointsatwhichthetreebrachesatvariouslevelsarecalledBranchingnodes分叉点10.Inadditiontotheuseofstructuraltreediagrams,linguistsmayshowthehierarchicalstructureofsentencesbyusingbracketsandsubscriptlabels.11.句法类型Major…主要词类open,canaddnewwordsLexicalcategory名、动、形、副词N,V,Adj,AdvSyntacticMinor…次要词类close,wordsarefixedCategories限定、助动、介、代、连、叹Det,Aux,Prep,Pron,Conj,IntPhrasalcategoryApartfromsentencesandclauses,asyntacticcategoryusuallyreferstoaword(calledalexicalcategory)oraphrase(calledphrasalcategory)thatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunction,suchasthesubjectinasentence.12.短语类型NounPhraseNPPhrasalVerbPhraseVPCategoriesPrepositionPhrasePPAdjectivePhraseAP13.Thegrammaticalrelationsofasentenceconcernthewayeachmounphraseinthesentencerelatestotheverb,inmanycases,grammaticalrelationsrefervirtuallyto’who’does’what’to’whom’.14.weusuallyrefertothegrammaticalrelationsassubjectofanddirectobjectof.15.Combinationalrulesmustbesmallinnumbersoasnottocreateextraburdensonthehumanmemory.alsotheserulesmustbepowerfulenoughtoyieldallthepossiblesentences,andruleouttheimpossibleones组合规则一定不能太多，以免给人记忆带来过多负担，用这些规则必须能组合出全部可能句子，而排除不可能句子。16.rulesangenerateaninfinitenumberofsentences,andsentenceswithinfinitelength,duetotheirrecursiveproperties.Itcapturestheabilityoflanguagetogeneratemoreconstituentstoasentenceandenablesspeakerstorepeatsyntacticconstituentswithinthesamesentence.循环性表现了语言中句子能有更多成份，使说话者能在同一句子中重复一些句法成份。17.移位类型SyntacticNP-movement=t’sinvolvingthemovementofanounphrase.Movement名词短语移位WH-movement=Itchangesasentencefromaffirmativetointerrogative.陈说变疑问句AUX-…=themovementofanauxiliaryverbtothesentenceinitialposition.助动词移位到句首移位18.普遍语法广义标准GeneralPrinciplesofUniversalGrammar:CaseCondition和AdjacencyCondition格条件---anounphrasemusthaveCaseandCaseisassignedbyVorPtotheobjectposition,orbyAUXtothesubjectposition.名词词组必须有格，宾语格是由动词或介词决定，而主语格由助动词决定。相邻条件—acaseassignorandaCaserecipientshouldstayadjacenttoeachother,itexplainswhynootherphrasalcategorycanintervenebetweenaverbanditsdirectobject.格分配者和格接收者要相邻。这解释了为何任何别词组类不能插到动词和它直接宾语之间。19.UniversalGrammarisbelievedtocontainaparameterwiththevalves增and减setontheAdjacencycondition.withEnglish-typelanguages,theAdjacencyParameterissettothe增value,whileforFrench-typelanguage,theparameterissetto减value.三、问答题1.Usetheappropriatephrasestructurerulestodrawalabeledconstituentstructuretreediagramforeachofthefollowingsentences.⑴thetoweronthehillcollapsedinthewind⑵MarypromisedJohntoseethedoctor.Chapter5Semantics一、定义1.命名论ThenamingtheoryThenamingtheory,oneoftheoldestnotionsconcerningmeaning,andalsoaveryprimitiveonewasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor,sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.2.意念论TheconceptualistviewItholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.3.语境论ConceptualismIt’sbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.heraretwokindsofcontext:thesituationalandthelinguisticcontext.4.行为主义论BehaviorismItreferstotheattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe”situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.thistheorysomewhatclosetoconceptualismemphasizesonthepsychologicalresponse.5.意义SenseIt’sconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.It’sthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform,it’sabstractandde-contextualized.6.所指意义ReferenceItmeanswhatal