托福31阅读答案详细解析tpo14r

WhichofthefollowingisNOTmentionedinparagraph1asbeingadifficultjudgmentforchildrentomakeaboutadvertisedtoys?HowbighetoysHowmuchthetoysWhatthetoyscanHowhetoysareTheword“Verify”inhepassageisclosestinmeaningestablishthetruthapprove词汇题。直接近义词啊！！！明明知道viy是核实，证实的意思。但我却犹豫见到选项是词组，所以少有的被迷惑。然后开始往原文带入。记住词汇题通常不需要这样做！！Inparagraph2,whatisonereasonhatclaimssuchas“thebest”or“betterthan”canbemisleading?Theyrepresenttheopinionsofadults,whichareoftendifferentfromthoseofchildren.TheygenerallyinvolvecomparisonsamongonlyasmallgroupofTheyreflecttheattitudesofconsumerprotectiongroupsratherthanthoseofactualconsumers.Theyreflecttheadvertiser'sviewpointabouttheCerealadvertisementsthatincludethestatement“whenpartofanutriionallybalancedbreakfast"aretryingtosuggestthatthecerealisadesirablepartofahealthful,balancedthecerealcontainsequalamountsofallcerealisahealthierbreakfasthanoherfoodsthecerealishemostnutritiouspartofthebreakfast修辞目的题。错误原因：我不知道这句话原意是什么啊。。是语法问题吗？但可以从排除法判断。c两项都要注意比较！“比较”这个考点很重要！一定要判断清楚比较对象！或 er的理解错误。它=免责。也就是说整个eg句， er是对于其它产品的评论。。破折号后的内容要注意啊！！这样的话，就把黑体字和a项对应上了。 Accordingtoparagraph2,allofthefollowingaretrueofdiersmadeinadverisementsEXCEPT:TheyarequalificationsorconditionsputonaTheymaybeusedtobalanceexaggeraTheyareusuallypresentedinbohaudioandvisualTheyareoftendifficultforchildrentoTheword"adept”inthepassageisclosestinmeaning

ChildrenandYoungchildrenaretrustingofcommercialadverisementsinhemedia,andadverisershavesometimesbeenaccusedoftakingadvantageofthistrustingoutlook.TheIndependentevisionCommission,regulatorofevisionadvertisingintheUnitedKingdom,hascriticizedadvertisersfor"misleadingness'—creaingawrongimpressioneitherintentionallyorunintentionally—inanefforttocontroladvertisers'useoftechniqueshatmakeitdifficultforchildrentojudgethetruesize,action,performance,orconstructionofatoy.Generalconcernaboutmisleadingtacicshatadvertisersemployiscenteredontheuseofexaggeration.Consumerprotectiongroupsandparentsbelievehatchildrenarelargelyill-equippedtorecognizesuchtechniquesandthatoftenexaggerationisusedattheexpenseofproductinformation.Claimssuchasthebest'or“betterthan"canbesubjectiveandmisleading（冒号）evenadultsmaybeunsureastotheirmeaning.Theyrepresentheadvertiser'sopinionsaboutthequalitiesoftheirproductsorbrandand,asaconsequence,aredifficulttoverify.Advertiserssometimesoffsetorcounterbalanceanexaggeratedclaimwihadier—aqualificationorcondiiononheclaim.Forexampletheclaimthatbreakfastcerealhasahealhbenefimaybe panied paniedbytheer"whenpartofabalancedbreakfast."However,researchhasshownhatchildrenoftenhavedifficultyunderstandingdiers:childrenmayinterpretthephrase'whenpartofanutritionallybalancedbreakfast"tomeanthatthecerealisrequiredasanecessarypartofabalancedbreakfast.TheauthorGeorgeComstocksuggestedthatlessthanaquarterofchildrenbetweentheagesofsixandeightyearsoldunderstoodstandarddiersusedinmanytoyadvertisementsandhatdiersaremorereadilycomprehendedwhenpresentedinbohaudioandvisualformats.Nevertheless,di ersaremainlypresentedinaudioformatParagraph3indicatesthatthereisuncertaintyaboutwhichofthefollowingissuesinvolvingchildrenandfantasyinadvertising?WhetherchildrencanlifwhattheyareseeinginanadvertisementisrealorfantasyWhetherchildrencandifferentiatefantasytechniquesfromothertechniquesusedinadverisingWhetherchildrenrealizehowcommonlyfantasytechniquesareusedinadverisingaimedathemWhetherchildrenareattractedtoadvertisementsthatlackWhichofthesentencesbelowbestexpressestheessentialinformaioninhehighlightedsentenceinthepassage?Incorrectchoiceschangehemeaninginimportantwaysorleaveoutessentialinformation.Rationalappealsinadverisingarecertainlylimitedbychildren'semotionalimmaturityandtheindirectnatureofheirassociations.关系不对。Indirectappealstochildren'spsychologicalstatesorassociaionscanlimittheeffectivenessofrationalappealsinadvertising.动作不对。Rationalappealsyamuchsmallerroleinadvertisementsforchildrenthanemotionalappealsandpsychologicalassociationsdo.Rationalappealsinadverisingaimedatchildrenshouldcertainlybelimiteduntilthechildrenareemotionallyandpsychologicallyready.rational，后者是emotional和indirect。仔细理解原文的话，原句并没有说用emotional来limitrational！原文只是说由于用了emotional，所以rational被限制了。而且2,的信息也不全，其只有iie，没有mial。但由于原句中aial与mial相对应，所以3也可以接受。Theword"attributes"inthepassageisclosestinmeaning

Fantasyisoneofthemorecommontechniquesinadvertisingthatcouldpossiblymisleadayoungaudience.Child-orientedadvertisementsaremorelikelytoincludemagicandfantasythanadvertisementsaimedatadults.Inacontent ysisofCanadianevision,theauhorStephenKlineobservedthatnearlyallcommercialsforcharactertoysfeaturedfantasyy.Childrenhavestrongimaginationsandtheuseoffantasybringstheirideastolife,butchildrenmaynotbeadeptenoughtorealizethatwhattheyareviewingisunreal.Fantasysituationsandsettingsarefrequentlyusedtoattractchildren'sattention,particularlyinfoodadverising.Adverisementsforbreakfastcerealshave,formanyyears,beenfoundtobeespeciallyfondoffantasytechniques,withalmostnineoutoftenincludingsuchcontent.Generally,thereisuncertaintyastowhetherveryyoungchildrencandistinguishbetweenfantasyandrealityinadvertising.Certainly,rationalappealsinadvertisingaimedatchildrenarelimited,asmostadvertisementsuseemotionalandindirectappealstopsychologicalstatesorassociations.第三段：：的另一个惯用伎俩——fantasy。Inparagraph4,whydoesheauhormentionashowaboutacartoonlionwhichanadverisementappearsfeaturingthesamelionTohelpexinwhatismeantbytheterm"hostselling”andwhyitcanbemisleadingtochildrenToexinwhytheroleofcelebriiesinadvertisingaimedatchildrenhasoftenbeenconfusedwihhostsellingTocomparetheeffectivenessofusinganimatedfigureswithheeffectivenessofusingcelebriiesinadvertisementsaimedatchildrenToindicatehowKunkelfirstbecameinterestedinstudyingtheeffectsofhostsellingonchildrenTheword"credible”inhepassageisclosestinmeaning词汇题。纠结原因：由于不确定，回到原文对应后。又开始用上下文翻译来理解了。不能用翻译！要用上下文定位！记住，人的思维没有跳跃。首先是句内。然后是前后句！

Theuseofcelebritiessuchassingersandmoviestarsiscommoninadvertising.Theintentionisforhepositivelyperceivedattributesofthecelebritytobetransferredtotheadvertisedproductandforhetwoto eautomaticallylinkedinheaudience'smind.Inchildren'sadvertising,hecelebritiesareoftenanimatedfiguresfrompopularcartoons.Intherecentpast,heroleofcelebritiesinadvertisingtochildrenhasoftenbeenconflatedwithheconceptofhostselling.Hostsellinginvolvesblendingadverisementswithregularprogramminginawaythatmakesitdifficulttodisinguishonefromheother.Hostsellingoccurs,forexample,whenachildren'sshowaboutacartoonlioncontainsanadinwhichthesamelionpromotesabreakfastcereal.ThepsychologistDaleKunkelshowedthatthepraciceofhostsellingreducedchildren'sabilitytodistinguishbetweenadverisingandprogrammaterial.Itwasalsofoundhatolderchildrenrespondedmorepositivelytoproductsinhostsellingadverisements.第四段：的第三个伎俩——名人及某一具体的方法论hostsellingAccordingtoparagraph5,whatdidastudyofchildreninHongKongshowabouttheuseofcelebritiesinadvertisementsaimedatchildren?ItismosteffecivewithchildrenwhowatchalotofIthaslittleeffectifthecelebritiesarenotfamiliartomostItismoreeffectiveinmarkeingcerealsandfoodproductsthaninmarkeingotherkindsofproducts.ItcanhaveanegaiveeffectifhecelebriiesarenotpopularwithParagraph3:■Fantasyisoneofthemorecommontechniquesinadvertisingthatcouldpossiblymisleadayoungaudience.■Child-orientedadvertisementsaremorelikelytoincludemagicandfantasythanadvertisementsaimedatadults.■InacontentysisofCanadianevision,theauthorStephenKlineobservedthatnearlyallcommercialsforcharactertoysfeaturedfantasyy.■Childrenhavestrongimaginaionsandheuseoffantasybringsheirideastolife,butchildrenmaynotbeadeptenoughtorealizehatwhattheyareviewingisunreal.Fantasysituationsandsetingsarefrequentlyusedtoattractchildren'sattention,particularlyinfoodadvertising.Adverisementsforbreakfastcerealshave,formanyyears,beenfoundtobeespeciallyfondoffantasytechniques,withalmostnineoutoftenincludingsuchcontent.Generally,thereisuncertaintyastowhetherveryyoungchildrencandistinguishbetweenfantasyandrealityinadvertising.Certainly,rationalappealsinadvertisingaimedatchildrenarelimited,asadverisementsuseemoionalandindirectappealstopsychologicalstatesorLookatthefoursquares[■]hatindicatewherehefollowingsentencecouldbeaddedtothepassage.AnotheraspectofadvertisingthatmayespeciallyinfluencechildrenWherewouldthesentencebestfit?ClickonasquaretoaddthesentencetotheDirections:Anintroductorysentenceforabriefsummaryofhepassageisprovidedbelow.CompletethesummarybyselectingtheTHREEanswerthatexpressthemostimportantideasinthepassage.Somesentencesdonotbelonginthesummarybecauseheyexpressideashatnotpresentedinthepassageorareminorideasinthepassage.Thisquestionisworth2points.Advertiserssometimesusestrategiesthatcanmislead●●●AnswerAdvertisementscanbemisleadingtochildrenwhentheadvertisementsuseaudioandvisualformatsthatareespeciallyappealingtochildren.细节且错误Childrenmaynotbeabletointerpretexaggeratedclaimsmadebyadverisersorunderstandthediersusedtooffsetclaims.Althoughtheuseofcelebriiesisnotnecessarilyeffeciveinadverisementsaimedatchildren,hereisevidencethathostsellingcanposiivelyaffecttheirviewsofaproduct.Studiesshowthatmisleadingtacticsareusedmostoftenincommercialsforbreakfastcereals,withtoycommercialsusingsuchtacicsonlyslightlylessfrequently.太细节了。Theuseoffantasyisespeciallycommoninadvertisementsforchildren,butchildrenmaynotbeabletodisinguishfantasyfromreality.Veryyoungchildrenareparicularlyinfluencedbyhostselling,whileslighlyolderchildrenaremorereadilymisledbyseeminglyrationalclaimssuchas'thebest."胡乱整合文中信息。

Regardingtheappearanceofcelebritiesinadverisementshatdonotinvolvehostselling,heevidenceismixed.ResearcherCharlesAtkinfoundhatchildrenbelievethatthecharactersusedtoadvertisebreakfastcerealsareknowledgeableaboutcereals,andchildrenacceptsuchcharactersascrediblesourcesofnutritionalinformation.Thisfindingwasevenmoremarkedforheavyviewersofevision.Inaddition,childrenfeelvalidatedintheirchoiceofaproductwhenacelebrityendorsesthatproduct.AstudyofchildreninHongKong,however,foundthatthepresenceofcelebriiesinadvertisementscouldnegativelyaffectthechildren’sperceptionsofaproductifthechildrendidnotlikethecelebrityinquesion. ..4.儿童信任中的商业，并且商因利用这种信任背景的有利条件常常受到指责。英国电视的调节者独立电视批评商的误导---无论是有意还是无意的情况下创造了一个错误的印象---即商尽量控制对技术的使用，这样使儿人们普遍关心商夸大其词的误导策略。消费者保护组织和家长们相信孩子们大部分的不具备识别这种技巧的能力，并且他们相信这种夸大掩盖了相关产品信息。声称这是“最好的”或“比什么好”都是的和误导。即使是成年人也许也不能确定他们的意思。它们代表了客户对产品质量或品牌的观点，因此，它们很难被核实。商有时通过补偿或者免责的形式来平衡一个夸大的说辞。举个例子，声称早餐食用谷物食品对健康是有益的可能会附带一个免责 “当早餐被部分营养平衡时”。然而，研究发现儿童常常对理解免责有 ：儿童解释“当早餐被部分营养平衡时”为谷类食物是均衡早餐营养的必需成份。作者erCsck在六岁到八岁之间的儿童，其中少于四分之一的儿童理解了用于大数的玩具中的标准的免责。同时，当免责以声音和视觉的形式同时出现时是容易被理解的。然而，它们多是以声音的形式出现。中的幻想是一种非常常见的技术以此来误导一个年轻的观众。面向儿童的比面向成年的更有可能包含了魔力和 部分。通过分析的电视内容，作者Sepenkie注意到几乎所有的角色玩具 中都以幻想剧为出发点。儿童有着丰富的想象力，运用想象力把他们的想法带入了生活，但是儿童也许不能熟练的认识到他们所看到的并不是真实的。想象力的环境和背景常常用于吸引儿童的注意力，特别是食物 。多年以来，早餐食用谷类食物的，被认为是特别喜爱运用想象力的技术 ，几乎十家有九家包含了这样的内容。一般的来看，幼童区别中的幻想和现实部分存在着不确定性。当然，当大部分的 对儿童运用情感 中常常使用名人如歌星和。目的是将感知到的对名人的积极评价转移为对我们所的产品的评价，使两者在观众的脑海中自动的变得有联系。在儿童的中，名人常常是扮演卡通中的著名人物。最近几年，对儿童来说名人在中的作用已经与卡通主角销售混为一谈了。主角销售需要通过法来混合常规形式的以此使两者区别开来比较。举一个出现主角销售的例子，当一个儿童展示一个中出现的卡通狮子时，则该狮子也在售卖谷类早餐。心理学家DeKkel主角销售的实践减弱了儿童区别和实物本质的能力。同样发现，年龄较大的儿童对主角销售的反应较大。关于名人在中的出现并不涉及主角销售的是复杂的。研究员CaesAkin发现儿童相信谷物早餐中使用的卡通人物对谷物是很了解的，并且，儿童接受这样的卡通人物，认为它们是营养信息的可靠来源。这一发现对沉溺电视的观众是一标示。另外，当名人赞同某一个产品并且儿童也选择这个产品时，儿童会感觉产品有效果。然而，在对儿童的研究发现，如果儿童不喜欢当下的名人，名人在中的出现可能使儿童对该产品的看法变得影响。WhydoesheauthorcallheMayanhomelandbotha“seasonaltropical”and"seasonaldesert”?ToillustratehowtheclimateoftheMayanhomelandvariedfromregiontoToexinhowtheclimateoftheMayanhomelandissimilartothatofajungleortropicalrainToemphasizehevastsizeoftheareathatcomprisedtheMayanhomelandinancienttimesTomakehepointhattheMayanhomelandisclimaticallymorecomplexisgenerallyWhichofthefollowingisNOTmenionedinparagraph2asadifferencebetweenthenorhernandsouhernYucatanPeninsula?TheannualrainfallwasgreaterintheThepopulaiondensitywaslowerinheAgriculturalproductivitywasgreaterinheRainfallwasmoreunpredictableandvariableinthesou

landsurfaceinhesouhissohighabovehewaterWhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutheavailabilityofwaterintheMayanWhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutancientandmodemagricultureintheYucatanPeninsulaissupportedbyparagraph2?ModernagriculturalmehodshavesolvedmanyoftheancientproblemsoffarmingintheYucatanPeninsula.AncientMayanfarmersmayhavebeensomewhatmoresuccessfulatfarmingintheYucatanPeninsulahanfarmersaretoday.FarmingtodayiseasierthaninthepastbecauseenvironmentalchangesintheYucatanPeninsulahaveincreasedavailablerainfallTheYucatansoilsinwhichancientfarmersworkedwerericher,moreproducandhickerhantheyaretoday.Theword"paradoxically”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningThephrase“Thelikelyexnation"inthepassagereferstoheexnaionforthesouthernMayaareasreceivedmorerainfallhanthenorhernmodernarchaeologistshavedifficultyunderstandingancientwaterproblemsweremostsevereinthewetsouMayaWaterhathatistodaysouhernMexicoandCentralAmericaandTounderstandtheancientMayanpeoplewholivedintheheyfaced,onemustfirstconsidertheirenvironment,whichwethinkof“jungle"or'tropicalrain ."Thisviewisinaccurate,andthereasonprovestobeimportant.Properlyspeaking,tropicalrainsgrowinhigh-rainfallequatorialareashatremainwetorhumidallyearround.ButtheMayahomelandliesmorethansixteenhundredkilometersfromheequator,atlatitudes17to22degreesnorh,inahabitattermeda“seasonaltropical."Thatis,whiletheredoestendtobearainyseasonfromMaytoOctober,thereisalsoadryseasonfromJanuarythroughApril.Ifonefocusesonthewetmonths,onecallstheMayahomelanda"seasonaltropical";ifonefocusesonthedrymonths,onecouldinsteaddescribeitasa"seasonalFromnorhtosouthintheYucatanPeninsula,wheretheMayalivedrainfallrangesfrom18to100inches(457to2,540millimeters)peryear,andthesoils ethicker,sothatthesouthernpeninsulawasagriculturallymoreproduciveandsupporteddenserpopulations.ButrainfallinheMayahomelandisunpredictablyvariablebetweenyears;somerecentyearshavehadthreeorfourtimesmorerainthanoheryears.Asaresult,modernfarmersattemptingtogrowcornintheancientMayahomelandshavefacedfrequentcropfailures,especiallyinhenorh.TheancientMayawerepresumablymoreexperiencedanddidbetter,butneverthelesstheytoomusthavefacedrisksofcropfailuresfromdroughtsandAlthoughsouthemMayaareasreceivedmorerainfallthannorhernareas,problemsofwaterwereparadoxicallymoresevereinthewetsouh.WhilethatmadehingshardforancientMayalivinginthesouthithasalsomadethingshardformodemarchaeologistswhohavedifficultyunderstandingwhyancientdroughtscausedbiggerproblemsinthewetsouththaninthedrynorh.ThelikelyexnationisthatanareaofundergroundfreshwaterunderliesheYucatanPeninsula,butsurfaceelevationincreasesfromnorhtosouh,sothatasonemovessouthhehomelandissupportedbyparagraphTheconstructionofwellswasan monpracticeinboththenorthandthesouhbecauseitwastoodifficulttodigthroughthekarst.Inmostareasinthenorthandthesouth,rainwaterwasabsorbeddirectlyintotheporouskarst.ThewatertablewasanimportantresourceforagricultureinboththenorthandthesouhofheYucatanPeninsula,Thelackofsurfacewaterinboththenorthandthesouthwasprobablyduetothefacthatmostofitwasquicklyusedupforagriculturalpurposes.Accordingtoparagraph3,whywashesouhernMayanhomelandhardtoThepresenceofnumeroussinkholesandwellsinterferedwithSouhernsoilackedthedepthcropsneededforgrowUndergroundwaterwastoofarbelowhesurfacetoThepresenceofkarstcausedfrequent8Whichofthesentencesbelowbestexpressestheessentialinformaioninthehighlightedsentenceinthepassage?Incorrectchoiceschangehemeaninginimportantwaysorleaveoutessentialinformation.SouhernMayapopulaionsobtainedthewaterheyneededforthedryseasonbycollectingandstoringrainwaterinsealeddepressions.TheMayaarecreditedwithcreatingmethodsformodifyingnaturalrainwaterandstoringit.Leaksinthekarscauseddifficultiesinthecreaionofreservoirs,whichwereneededtostorewaterforthedryseason.SouhernMayansweremoresuccessfulatcollectingrainthanstoringitduringdryseasons.句子简化题。抓住原句的主干。即使看不懂，也可以从原文几个动作中，大致知道在做什么。关键还是仔细读！！Whatcanbeinferredfromparagraph4abouthowresidentsofTikalmettheirneedsforwaterandfoodduringmostperiodsofdrought?Theydependeduponwaterandfoodthathadbeenstoredforuseduringhedryseason.TheyobtaineddrinkingwaterandwaterforcropirrigationfromCobaTheylocatedheirpopulaioncentersnearalakewherewaterwasavailablefordnnkingandwateringcrops.Theymovedlocationsevery18monhstofindnewcrondsandwatersources.Theword"prolonged"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningTheword"exhausted"inthepassageisclosestinmeaningusedreliedParagraph1:TounderstandtheancientMayanpeoplewholivedintheareathatistodaysouhernMexicoandCentralAmericaandtheecologicaldifficultiestheyfaced,onemustfirstconsidertheirenvironment,whichwethinkofas“jungle"or'tropicalrain."■Thisviewisinaccurate,andthereasonprovestobeimportant.■Properlyspeaking,tropicalrainsgrowinhigh-rainfallequatorialareasthatremainwetorhumidallyearround.ButtheMayahomelandliesmorethansixteenhundredkilometersfromtheequator,atlatitudes17to22degreesnorth,inahabitattermeda“seasonaltropical."■Thatis,whiletheredoestendtobearainyseasonfromMaytoOctober,hereisalsoadryseasonfromJanuarythroughApril.Ifonefocusesonthewetmonths,onecallsheMayahomelanda"seasonaltropical";ifonefocusesonthedrymonhs,onecouldinsteaddescribeitasa"seasonaldesert.”■Lookatthefoursquares[■]thatindicatewherehefollowingsentencecouldbeaddedtothepassage.ThedifferencebetweenthetwoclimateschallengedtheMayawhohaddealwithWherewouldthesentencebestfit?ClickonasquaretoaddthesentencetotheDirections:SelectfromthesevenphrasesbelowthephrasesthatcorreclycharacterizethesouhernMayanhomelandandthephrasesthatcorrectlycharacterizethenorthernMayanhomeland.Drageachphraseyouselectintotheappropriatecolumnofthetable.TwoofthephraseswillNOTbeused.Thisquestionisworth3points.SouthernMayan134NorhernMayan57Answer○Cityof。○Highabovewater○Used○ObtainedwaterfromDramaticallyimprovedcorncrops○Hadcomparativelyhinlayerof

landsurfaceliesincreasinglyhigherabovehewatertable.nhenorhernpeninsulatheelevationissufficientlylowhatheancientMayawereabletoreachthewatertableatdeepsinkholescalledcenotes,oratdeepcaves.Inlow-elevationnorthcoastalareaswihoutsinkholes,theMayawouldhavebeenabletogetdowntohewatertablebydiggingwellsupto75feet(22meters)deep.Butmuchofhesouthliestoohighabovethewatertableforcenotesorwellstoreachdowntoit.Makingmattersworse,mostofheYucatanPeninsulaconsistsofkarst,aporoussponge-likelimestoneterrainwhererainrunsstraightintohegroundandwherelitleornosurfacewaterremainsavailable.HowdidthosedensesouhernMayapopulationsdealwiththeresultingwaterproblem?Itinitiallysurprisesusthatmanyoftheirciieswerenotbuiltnexttoheriversbutinsteadonhighterraininrollingunds.Theex nationisthattheMayaexcavateddepressions,ormodifiednaturaldepressions,andthenpluggedupleaksinthekarstby steringthebottomsofthedepressionsinordertocreatereservoirs,whichcollectedrainfromlargesteredcat entbasinsandstoreditforuseinthedryseason.Forexample,reservoirsatheMayacityofTikalheldenoughwatertomeethedrinkingwaterneedsofabout10,000peopleforaperiodof18months.AthecityofCobatheMayabuiltdikesaroundalakeinordertoraiseitslevelandmaketheirwatersupplymorereliable.ButheinhabitantsofTikalandotherciiesdependentonreservoirsfordrinkingwaterwouldstillhavebeenindeeptroubleif18monthspassedwihoutraininaprolongeddrought.Ashorterdroughtinwhichtheyexhaustedtheirstoredfoodsmightalreadyhavegottenhemindeeptrouble,becausegrowingcropsrequiredrainratherthanreservoirs..2.○1,3,5,为了了解 今天南墨西哥和中地区的古玛雅人种以及他们所面对的生态困境，那么 须先研究他们的环境，也就是今天我们所谓的“丛林”或者“热带雨林”。这种观点虽然不是很准确，但是环境因素的意义还是很重要的。严格意义上讲，热带雨林生长在赤道附近常年保持潮湿的多雨地区。但是玛雅的故地是在离赤道六百多公里的北纬7-2度之间，也就是通常所说的“季节性热带雨林”里。也就是说，这个地区在五月到十月是雨季，而在一月到4月又是旱季。如果是关注湿季的话，可以说玛雅的故地是一个“季节性丛林”，如果关注旱季的话，那玛雅的故地就可以替换并解释为“季节性沙漠”了。玛雅人所居住的尤卡坦从南向北的年降水量是从18英寸到100英寸毫米）逐级递增的，而且土地也是逐级加厚，所以南部的农业生产力相对较高，相伴随的也就能养的人。不过雅故地的跨年降量的变化程度不可预测的。一些年份的降雨次数要比其他年份的多三到四次。正因如此，当现代的弄明打算在古玛雅人的故地种植棉花的时候就经常会种植，尤其是在的北部。古玛雅人也许更有经验也做得更好，但是不管怎么说他们都必须面对旱灾和飓风而导致的颗粒无收的风险。尽管玛雅故地的南部比之北部有的降雨，但是在潮湿的南方，水资源问题的矛盾性要更加。古代南部生活的玛雅人所的麻烦，在今天也困扰着现古学家，他们想不通为什么古代的旱灾的影响在湿润的南方要比干旱的北方大。一种可能季节是尤卡坦的水资源的区域是倾斜的，但是地表的上升幅度要低于古玛雅人能挖到的含水层的排水口，叫做“coe”,或者叫含水层。较低高度的北方沿海地区没有白税控，玛雅人应该可以借助凿井到达5英尺（2米）深的水含水层。但是南方想要通过排水口或是凿井来到大含水层的话，深度就要深得多。更的是，尤卡坦是由水浊石灰岩构成的，一种多孔海绵型就石灰岩地域，当雨水来临时水会笔直的流入地底并不在地表留下任何水分。那么南部如此密集的玛雅人是如何应对水资源问题的呢？起初最令我们惊讶的是玛雅的一些城市并不是建在河边的而是建在旋转与会的高地上的。之所以这么做是因为玛雅人开凿或者改造自然的低地，与此同时通过粉刷低地的地步来堵住水蚀石灰岩的的裂口，再用它来做成水库收集雨水以备旱季之用。比如说，位于玛雅太卡城的水库的出水量可以供人在超长无雨的旱季喝上个月。即使是较短的旱季他们耗费掉所的食物供应或许已经成为更次的问题，因为作物的生长需要雨水要远比水库的多。Theword“prestige”inthepassageisclosestinmeaning

ToemphasizehefrequencywithwhichIndo-EuropeanlanguageschangedasaresultofthenatureofpastoralismToindicateonemethodlinguistsusetodeterminethatinhabitantsofheDonAccordingtoparagraph1,whatmadeitpossibleforInnerEurasianpastoralismto ethemostandmilitaristicformofpastoralism?ItinvolvedthedomesticationofseveraltypesofItwasbasedprimarilyonhorsesratherhanonotherItborrowedandimproveduponEuropeanideasformobilityandItcouldbeadaptedtoawidevarietyofTheword"profound”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningInparagraph2,whydoestheauthorcontrastpastoralistswithToexinwhypastoralismrequiresmorelandthanagriculturalismtosupportbasicneedsToidenifysomeadvantagesthatsocieieshaveoverimsocieTodemonstratethatecologicalprinciplesthatapplytopastoralismdonotapplytoagriculturalismToarguethatagriculturalismeventuallydevelopedoutofAccordingtoparagraph2,pastoraliststendprefergrazingheiranimalsonagriculturalconsumecomparativelylargeamountsoffoodandavoid ntmove cetoceInparagraph3,whydoestheauthordiscusslanguagesspokenintheregionspanningfromEasternEuropetothewestembordersofMongolia?PastoralisminAncientInnerPastoralismPastoralismisalifestyleinwhicheconomicacivityis

primarilylivestock.Archaeologicalevidencesuggestshatby3000B.C.,andperhapsevenearlier,therehademergedonthesteppesofInnerEurasiathedistinctivetypesofpastoralismhatweretodominatetheregion'shistoryforseveralmillennia.Here,hehorsewasalready ingtheanimalofprestigeinmanyregions,houghsheep,goats,andcattlecouldalsoyavitalrole.ItistheuseofhorsesfortransportationandwarfarethatexinswhyInnerEurasianpastoralismprovedhemost andthemostmilitaristicofallmajorformsofpastoralism.TheemergenceandspreadofpastoralismhadaprofoundimpactonhehistoryofInnerEurasia,andalso,indirectly,onthepartsofAsiaandEuropejustoutsidethisarea.Inparicular,pastoralismfavorsa lifestyle,andthismobilityhelpstoexintheimpactofpastoralistsocietiesonhispartoftheworld.Themobilityofpastoralistsocieiesreflectstheirdependenceonanimal-basedfoods.Whileagriculturalistsrelyondomesticatedntspastoralistsrelyondomesticatedanimals.Asaresult,pastoralists,likecarnivoresingeneral,occupyahigherposiiononthefoodchainAllelsebeingequal,hismeanstheymustexploitlargerareasoflandthandoagriculturaliststosecurehesameamountoffood,clothing,andothernecessities.Sopastoralismisamoreextensivelifewayhanfarmingis.However,helargertheterrainusedtosupportagroup,theharderitistoexploitthatterrainwhileremaininginonece.So,basicecologicalprinciplesimplyastrongtendencywihinpastoralistlifewaystowardnomadism(a lifestyle).AsthearchaeologistRogerCribbputsit,'Thegreaterthedegreeofpastoralism,thestrongerthetendencytowardnomadism.'AmodernTurkicnomadinterviewedbyCribbcommented:"Themoreanimalsyouhavethefarheryouhavetomove.andDnieperriverareahadtakenupstockProvideevidencehaIndo-EuropeanlanguageshavetheirrootsinwhatisnowTurkeyToprovideevidencehatpastorahstsocietiescanexerciseculturalinfluenceoveralargearea7Theword"striking”inhepassageisclosestinmeaning8Theword"exploit”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningusetodepartpayattentiontravel词汇题。直接首先从近义词考虑啊！！怎么又回到最初的问题了！这里只是在考词汇！！实在不行才回到原文！能相信第一感觉的话尽量相信第一感觉！Accordingtoparagraph4,thefactthatpastoralistcommunitiesaresubjectto“strictrulesofportability”encouragessuchcommunitiestorelocatelessfrequenlythantheywouldhavehouseholdsthataremoreorlessequalineself-sufficientinthemanufactureofsilkandsharelargematerialsurpluseswihneighboringAccord