实例3：时空文化差异与跨文化交际

XXX：认真看过你的文章，觉得问题不少。总的来看，整篇文章的论证过程较为混乱，不少观点尚值商榷（其中较为严重之处详见文中黄色字批语）；其次，整篇文章似乎是在简单罗列别人的观点，重点不够突出，结构更像是教科书而不大像一篇学术论文，除了结论部分，似乎很少有属于自己论述的东西（我指的是内容而不是语言问题）。也正因如此，结论显得较为突然但又苍白无力。语言表达问题相当严重。主要体现在总体表达不够流畅，翻译腔太浓；词语搭配过于随意；词性不分。建议你请个写作语言功底较好的同学帮你重新修改、润色，切切！注：文中紫色字是我已为你改好的部分，可不必再改，但也要认真看一看，对于你自己写作的提高应该是有帮助的。红色字部分是有较严重错误的或是我不明就理的地方，望你认真修改。绿色字部分内容涉及到文章中的格式问题，不符合学术论文的写作规范，也望修改为盼。顺祝假日快乐！黄清贵TimeandSpaceCulturalDifferencesandInter-CulturalCommunicationAbstract:Timeandspacebehaviorsmakegreatestdifferenceandsensitivityintheinterculturalcommunication.Duetothedifferencesofwaysofthinking,peopleofdifferentcultureshavedifferentattitudestotimeandspacewhentheycommunicatewitheachother.Thus,thepaperstudiesnotonlyChineseethicalattitudetotimeand

spaceandtheattitudetotimeandspaceinotherculturalbackground,butalsothesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthem.ItwellreactsonbothpromotingtheintercoursebetweenChineseandwesterncountriesandreducingthenumberoflapsusintheinterculturalcommunication.Thepaperleadsustocomprehendmorecorrectlyanddeeplyandtomastercomparativelycorrectandmoderatetimeandspacebehaviorsintheinterculturalcommunication.Keywords:Interculturalcommunication;attitudetotime;attitudetospace;culturaldifferences'CultureistheIntroduction'CultureistheAsweallknow,differentcountrieshavedifferentcultures.collectiveprogrammingofthemindwhichdistinguishesthe(Hofstede,1991)membersofonecategoryofpeoplefromoneanother.'(Hofstede,1991)Theworldtodayischaracterizedbyanevergrowingnumberofcontactsresultingincommunicationbetweenpeoplewithdifferentlinguisticandculturalbackgrounds.Thiscommunicationtakesplacebecauseofcontactswithintheareasofbusiness,militarycooperation,science,education,massmedia,entertainment,tourismbutalsobecauseofimmigrationbroughtaboutbylaborshortageorpoliticalconflicts.Inallthesecontacts,thereiscommunicationwhichneedstobeasconstructiveaspossible,withoutmisunderstandingsandbreakdowns.Itisourbeliefthatresearchonthenatureoflinguisticandculturalsimilaritiesanddifferencesherecanplayapositiveandconstructiverole.(Prof.JensAllwood,JournalofInterculturalCommunication)Timeandspacedifferencesinthenon-verbalcommunicationplayanimportantroleintheinter-culturalcommunication.Differentconceptsofbothtimeandspaceamongdifferentculturesdefinitelyinfluencethecommunicationonbusiness,technology,andevenlife.ToimproveintercoursesbetweenChineseandforeigners,thepaperstudiesthecharacteristicsoftimeandspaceconceptsinbothChinaandforeignnations,andleadsustocomprehendmorecorrectlyanddeeplyandtomastercomparativelycorrectandmoderatetimeandspacebehaviorsintheinterculturalcommunication.TheactualityonresearchofthethesisCharacteristicsandculturaldifferencesofattitudestotimeinbothChinaandwesterncountriesThedifferenceoftimeseriationWhilelearningforeignlanguages,wefindthatthereisagreatdifferencebetweenpeoplefromwesterncountriesandChinesepeopleonthecaseoftimeseriation.InChina,wearrangethedateastheorderofYear,Month,Day,whiletheyarrangethedateastheorderofDay,Month,YearorMonth,Day,Year.2.1.2ThedifferenceoftimetropismChinaisasociety,whichisdirectedbytraditions.Thetraditionalideologiesandthoughtwaysisstillusednowadays,andtheyarewidelyidentifiedaswellastheyarecriterionsofpeople'sbehaviors.Asaresult,whateverwedo,wewouldratherconsiderthatwhetherwediddoiteverbefore,whatdidwelearnfromit(thesuccessfulexperiencesorthelectures);weusuallyevaluatewhatwedonowadaysonthebasisoftheforetimeexperience.SoabsolutelyobeyingtherulesbecomesChinesesocialcriterion(norms?).Asforpeoplefromwesterncountries,regressionhasnooutlet,thereisahopeonlyiftheyforthcome.Asaresult,thepeoplefromwesterncountriesholdthefuturetimetropism.Theybelievethatthelifewillbebetterinthefuture.Peoplefromwesterncountriesdon'trespectteachersandtheseniorsasmuchasChinesepeopledo,becausetheythinkthattheageandexperiencecountfornothingandarenotworthwhile.Theyseldomobeytherulesoradoretheirancestorsabsolutely,andtheydon'tevenbelieveinthefate,however,theywouldratherconcentrateonfinishingwhattheyhaveplanedinthenearfuture.Thisisthereasonwhypeoplefromwesterncountriespreferdiversificationandinnovation.(ZhengHua,Mar,2003)2.1.3ThedifferencesofattitudestopunctualityTherearebigdifferencesofattitudestopunctualityindifferentculturesAmericanAnthropologistHalldevelopedtheclassificationoftimeasaformofcommunication.Hallproposedthatculturesorganizetimeinoneoftwoways:eithermonochronic(M-time)ofpolychronic(P-time)(AdaptedfromLarryA.Samovar,RichardE.PorterandLisa.A.StefaniCommunicationBetweenCultures[M],170).M-timeischaracteristicofpeoplefromGermany,Australia,Switzerland,andAmerica.Asthewordmonochronicimplies,thisapproachseestimeaslineal,segmented,andmanageable.Timeissomethingwemustnotwaste;wemustbedoingsomethingorwefeelguilty.Webehaveasiftimeweretangible:wetalkof“savingtime,”“losingtime,”or“killingtime.”Thetimeclockrecordsthehourswemustwork,theschoolbellmovesusfromclasstoclass,andthecalendarmarksimportantdaysandeventsinourlives.Appointmentsandschedulesareveryimportanttomembersofmonochroniccultures.(LarryA.Samovar,RichardE.PorterandLisaA.StefaniCommunicationBetweenCultures[M],170)PeoplefromculturesonP-timelivetheirlivetheirlivesquitedifferently.P-timecultures,forexample,dealwithtimeholistically.Theycaninteractwithmorethanonepersonordomorethanonethingatatime.Theyalsotakegreatstockintheactivitythatisoccurringatthemomentandemphasizepeoplemorethanschedules.Theydonotperceiveappointmentsasiron-cladcommitmentsandthereforeoftenbreakthem.ForP-timecultures,timeislesstangible;hence,feelingsofwastedtimearenotasprevalentasinM-timecultures.Thisleads,ofcourse,toalifestylethatismorespontaneousandunstructured—characteristicsthatoftenconfuseandfrustrateAmericansandotherWesterners.(LarryA.Samovar,RichardE.PorterandLisaA.StefaniCommunicationBetweenCultures[M],170)MonochronicPeoplePolychronicPeopleDoonethingatatime.Domanythingsatonce.Concentrateonthejob.AreeasilydistractedandsubjecttointerruptionsTaketime commitments(deadlines,schedules)seriously.Considertimecommitmentsanobjectivetobeachieved,讦possible.Arecommittedtothejob.Arecommittedtopeopleandhumanrelationships.Adheretoplans.Changeplansoftenandeasily.Areconcernedaboutnotdisturbingothers;followrulesofprivacy.Aremoreconcernedwithpeopleclosetothem(family,friends,closebusinessassociates)thanwithprivacy.Showgreatrespectforprivateproperty;seldomborroworlend.Borrowandlendthingsoftenandeasily.EmphasizepromptnessBasepromptnessontherelationship.Are accustomed to short-termHavestrongtendencytobuildlifetimerelationshipsrelationships.Source:AdaptedfromEdwardT.HallandMildredReedHall,UnderstandingCulturalDifferences:Germans,FrenchandAmericans(Yarmouth,ME:InterculturalPress,1990),15Inthedailylife,Chinesemakeuseofblurattitudetotimeonmanyoccasionsandappointingdates,butpeoplefromwesterncountriesevenlimittheappointingtimestosomeminutes.(WangZhiqiang,2007)CharacteristicsandculturaldifferencesofattitudestospaceinbothChinaandwesterncountriesDuetodifferentcultures,people'srequirementsofspaceandthecommunicatingrulesrelatingtospacearedifferent--thedifferencesofthebody'sdistanceChineselimittheirownboundstotheirbodiesjustlikewhatpeoplefromsouthEurope,ArabianandJapanesedo.Chineseareusedtocongestedcondition,andtheywon'tfeelimpingedeveniftheyarebuttedbyothers.PeoplefromEnglishspeakingcountriesenlargetheirownboundstotheexteriorofbodies,andconsidertheactionthatothersenterthisboundasbeingimpinged.(ZhouXiaodong/Fangfang,2006)Duetodifferentcultures,people'sassociationsandfeelingstowardstheboundofspacearedifferent—differentattitudestopersonaldemesneChineseareaffectedbyothertropismandcolonytropism,soChineseareusedtothinkforothers.Incontrary,Americanareaffectedbyindividualismtropism,sotheyarelackofpatienceandacceptancethatChinesepeoplehave.(ZhouXiaodong/FangFang,2006)Therearemanyculturaldifferencesofspaceangleandspaceorderinthecommunications.Forexample,whilegoingdownstairs,mostEnglishmengointhefrontinordertoprotectladiesandchildren;butthereisnosuchrulesinChina.Chinesepeopleareusedtoletitslide.(LinDajin,Oct,1996)Theresearchpurportoftheculturaldifferencesofbothattitudestotimeandspace&successfulstrategiesofinterculturalcommunication.TheresearchpurportoftheculturaldifferencesofbothattitudestotimeandspaceTimeandspacedifferencesinthenon-verbalcommunicationplayanimportantroleintheinter-culturalcommunication.Differentconceptsofbothtimeandspaceamongdifferentculturesdefinitelyinfluencethecommunicationonbusiness,technology,andevenlife.Inourreallife,duetothelapsusofcognitionofattitudestotimeandspace,thecommunicationfailuresoftentakeplace,andasaresult,it'sapitythatsomebusinessnegotiationbetweenChineseandforeignersbreakdown.InordertoimprovetheintercoursesbetweenChineseandwesternpeopleandinordertostudytheattitudestotimeandspace,it'sextremelyurgentthatweshouldlookaftermoderatecommunicatingmethods.SuccessfulstrategiesofinterculturalcommunicationThetimeandspacefactorsintheinterculturalcommunicationThetimefactorsintheinterculturalcommunicationTimeispartofthefundamentalstructureoftheuniverse，andtimeitselfissomethingthatcanbemeasured.Timehasobjectivityandperceptibility.Humanbeings'attitudestotimearecognitionsandreflectionsonobjectivetime.Inthelong-termpractices,humanbeingsformthreecognitionsoftime—biologicalattitude,psychologicalattitudeandculturalattitude.(Sincenotrelatingtointerculturalcommunication,thispaperdoesn'ttalkaboutbiologicalattitudetotime.)PsychologicalattitudetotimeThereareconceptsoftheforetime,nowandthefutureinmostofculturesallovertheworld.Sincetherearedifferencesofthechoiceonthethreeconcepts,peopleformfourdifferenttimetropismspsychologically:ZerotimetropismInsomecultures,peopledon'thaveanyattitudetotimeatall,sotheydon'tcareaboutthepast,presentorfuture.PasttimetropismPeoplewhoholdsuchkindoftimetropismeitherremembertheforetimeandtreatsomethinghappenedlongagoaswhathasjusthappened,orattachimportancetooldlifestylesandrepeatthingsinthepast.Asaresult,whateverwedo,wewouldratherconsiderthatwhetherwediddoiteverbefore,whatdidwelearnfromit(thesuccessfulexperiencesorthelectures);weusuallyevaluate,accordingtotheforetime,whatwedonowadays.(YangXiaohong,July,2001)PresenttimetropismInsomecultures,peoplethinkthepresenttimeisthemostimportant.FuturetimetropismWesternpeople,especiallyAmericans,keepfutureinmind,andfuturetropismistheirsignificantattitudetovalue.Thetheoryoforiginalsinimpactswesterndeeply.Astothem,thereisnooutletiftheyturnback,andthereisthehopeonlyiftheydotheirbesttogoforwardandexceedthemselves.Americansbelievefirmlythattheywillchangetheactualitiesiftheyworkhard.Astothosewhohavewillsofironandatticfaith,nothingisimpossible.Inthecontrary,failureindicateshe/shedoesn'tdohis/herbestandtheincompetentbehave.ThefuturetropismtowardtimebringsAmericansachievements,developmentandhigherlivingconditions.CulturalattitudetotimeCulturalattitudetotime,mainlyreferstothewaythat1)howpeopleindifferentculturesregardtimeand2)howpeopleinacertaincultureusethetime.Therearethreeculturaltimesystemsintheworld:technologicaltime,formaltimeandinformaltime.TechnologicaltimeIt'sthetimespanmeasuredbyscientificmethods,suchashour,minute,secondandsoon.FormaltimeItreferstothathowdopeopleinsomecertainculturesregardtime.Forexample,thetraditionalChinesecalendardividesoneyearto“twenty-fourfortnightlyperiods”,however,westernpeopleareusedtoregardtenyearsasaunit.Thecompoundmodeofformaltimemeanstocombinethetimeunitsinsomecertainculturesandmakethemodevaluable.Wecandefineitthroughtwofactors:firstly,thetimeneedstobearranged.Whattime...,howlong...,timeorder,etcneedtobescheduledandarranged;secondly,itisintendedtoregardtimeasthelinkthatmakethingsrelativewithoneanother.Thingshappeningoneafteranother,peopleusuallylookforthecausalrelationshipthroughthetime-lagbetweentwothings,andifthetime-lagiscomparativelylong,peoplewillnotconsiderthattheyhavesomecertainrelationships.(YangXiaohong,July,2001)InformaltimeSimplyspeaking,itisthetimewhichpeoplegenerallymention.Thewesternculture(America,Germany,Switzerland,Britain,etc)regardtimeastheobjectivetime,whileothers(China,Japan,Arabiannations,Africa,etc)considerthetimeasthesubjectivetime.(LiJunwen,July,2003)ThespacefactorsintheinterculturalcommunicationWecanusedistanceandspacetotransferinformationsinthenon-verbalbehaviors,includingthedistanceamongspeakers,andtheuseofspaceinthepublic,theofficeandathomeAssoonasthespaceanddistanceperformfunctionsinthenon-verbalcommunication,theywillinvolvetheconceptofprivatespace.Itcanbenarrowlycomprehendedastheboundaroundourbodies,whicharelikeintangiblespace.Whenthespaceisimpingedandwefeeluncomfortable,wenormallywillmoveupalittleorchangeourseatsorevenmakesomeradicalactions.(XuXiaoqiu,Sep,2001)Forexample,whenIamonthetrain,onemaniscontinuouslycoughing,Icant'thelptokeepsomecertaindistanceawayfromhimtoavoidthepollutionfromhisspitting.ThecomprehensiondifferencesofTheboundofhomespaceamongdifferentculturesmayeasilybringmisunderstanding.Asianpeopleusuallythinkthattheirownhouseiscrowdedandsmall,andmaymakeAmericancustomersfeeluncomfortable,soAsianhostsputthemupintherestaurant,however,Americancustomerwillthinkthatthehostsarekeepingthecommunicatingdistances.Becauseintheiropinion,itisthebestwaytoshowtheirfriendshipthattheyholdthedinnerathomeforthefriends.Englishpeopleregardtheirhousesastheircastlesandquiteprivateplaces.NormallyEnglishpeopleliveinindependenthouseswithagardenatthebackyardinsteadoflivinginflats,andtheywouldrathernotsharewithothers.SoitisdifficultforthemtounderstandAmericanlivinghabits.(XuXiaoqiu,Sep,2001)Thetimeandspaceattitudes'influenceontheinterculturalcommunicationThedifferencesbetweeneasternandwesternculturesbringpeoplethedifferencesoftimeusing.(FengCaiyan,2006)Theattitudetotimeofwesternpeopleistiedintheattitudetomoney.“Timeismoney”runsdeepinwesternpeople'smind(XuXiaoqiu,Sep,2001),sotheyformagoodhabitthattheyarealwayspunctualforappointments.Inwesterncountries,oneshouldtellthepeoplewhomhe/shewillvisitbeforehandormakeanappointmentinadvance,andexplainthepurpose,fixthetimeandnegotiatewitheachotheroverwhatplacetomeet.Chinesepeopleusethepolychronictimesystem.Unlikewesternpeople,someChineseusethetimequitecasually.Hence,westernpeopleareusuallyunaccommodatedtoit,and,asaresult,culturalconflictsmayoccur.BritishandAmericanpeoplehavestrongsenseoftime.TeachersaskthestudentstohandinthehomeworkonMondaywithoutdelaying,anditistheso-calleddeadline.(KongYuhua,May,2005)Peoplewhocomefromdifferentculturebackgroundshavedifferentattitudestospace,whichleadtodifferenttalkingdistances.Americancultureemphasizesindividualism,whereas,Chinesecultureemphasizescollectivism.Eachnationhasitsowncommunicatingdistance.Itindicatesthattheprivateterritoryisimpingedifthehabitualdistanceisbreakdown.Manyscholarsrefertocontactcultureandnoncontactculturewhentheyarestudyingtheso-calledspacelanguage.Theformermeansthatpeopleareusedtocontactwithothersontheprocessofinterpersonalinteractions;thelattermeansthatpeoplearenotusedtocontactwithothersontheprocessofinterpersonalinteractions.Soifwedon'tknowthedifference,weprobablywillmakeinter-culturalcommunicationmistakes.ProperwaystoavoidtheinterculturalcommunicationlapsusduetotheculturaldifferencesCultivatethenon-verbalcommunicatingability.Nowadays,non-verbalcommunicationsshowupinmanyoccasions,especiallycommunicationsabouttimeandspace.So,toimproveone'snon-verbalcommunicatingability,promotesheorshetocontactwithforeignculturesmoreaccuratelyandeffectively.Moreinterculturalcommunicationtextbooksarerequiredtobepublished.Asweknow,inChina,thetest-orientededucationiswidelyspreadalloverthecountry,hence,textbooksguidestudentstolearnwhatknowledge