亚开行-民间社会简报：印度（英）

CountryContext

IndiaisthelargestcountryinSouthAsia.ItsharesborderswithAfghanistan,Bangladesh,Bhutan,thePeople’sRepublicofChina,Myanmar,Nepal,andPakistan.ItissurroundedbytheArabianSeainthewest,theBayofBengalintheeast,andtheIndianOceaninthesouth.Ithasalandareaof3.3millionsquarekilometers.ThecapitalisNewDelhi.a

Indiagainedindependenceon15August1947.Itisafederalrepublicwithaparliamentarysystemofgovernmentthatconsistsofthreemajorbranches.TheexecutivebranchconstitutesthePresidentofIndiaastheheadofthestateandthePrimeMinisterastheheadofthegovernment.ThelegislativebranchcomprisestheLokSabha(HouseofThePeople)andRajyaSabha(CouncilofStates),formingthetwohousesoftheParliament.ThejudicialbranchconstitutestheSupremeCourtofIndiaasitsapexbody,followedbythehighcourts.TheConstitutionofIndiaisthemainsourceofthelegalsysteminthecountry,whichisconsideredthelargestdemocracyintheworld.Indiaisextremelydiverseandrecognizes22officiallanguages.b

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CIVILSOCIETYBRIEF

INDIA

CivilSocietyOverview

DefinitionsofCivilSocietyinIndia

CivilsocietyinIndiaisoftenconsideredsynonymouswith

theterms“voluntarysector,”“voluntaryorganizations,”

“nongovernmentorganizations”(NGOs),and“nonprofit

organizations”(NPOs),eventhoughitencompassesa

largergroup.Theriseofsocialmovements,NGOs,and

voluntaryorganizationsinthe20thcenturyledtothe

conceptualizationoftheterm“civilsociety.”1Itformally

enteredthepopulardiscourseinthe1980s2and1990s.

Multipledefinitionsareassociatedwithcivilsocietyin

Indiagiventhevastanddiversenatureofthebodiesthat

fallunderitsambit.

OneearlierdefinitionwasfromParticipatoryResearchin

Asia(PRIA)in2000,describingcivilsocietyas“thesum

totalofallindividualandcollectiveinitiativesforcommon

publicgood.”3Thiswasanall-encompassingdefinition,

includingformalandinformalcollectivesalongwith

individualactions,anditprovidedanarrativeboundaryto

theterm“publicgood.”Anotherdefinitionwasprovided

bytheVoluntaryActionNetworkIndia(VANI),oneof

thelargestumbrellaagenciesforvoluntaryorganizations

inthecountry,describingthemasagroupoflike-minded

peoplewhomanageandplanactivitiesforthebetterment

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CivilSocietyBrief:India

boxcontinued

Indiaisalsothesecond-mostpopulouscountryin

theworld,witha2018populationof1.3billion,c

two-thirdsofwhichisintheagegroupof15–64years

andaquarterintheagegroupof0–14years.

Theaveragelifeexpectancyasof2018is69.4years.

Theurbanpopulationisnearly34%ofthetotal.India

holdsthestatusofalowermiddle-incomecountry

asof2019(footnotea),andthegrossdomestic

productgrowthratewas5%inthatyear.Poverty

levelsdeclinedfrom21.6%in2011to13.4%in2015,

basedontheinternationalpovertyline(below$1.90

perdayat2011purchasingpowerparity).However,

thecoronavirusdisease(COVID-19)pandemichas

aggravatedthevulnerabilitiesofthepopulationand

increasedthepovertyheadcount.d

Theadultliteracyratehasimprovedoverthelast

decade,standingat74.4%in2018(footnoted).employed42.6%ofthecountry’sworkforce.

India’slatestHumanDevelopmentIndexranking

(2020)was131stoutof189countries.eThecountryhasseenashiftinitsworkforce:whereasintheearly1990stheagriculturesectoremployednearly63%oftheworkingpopulation,by2019itemployed42.6%.Theservicessectorasof2019employedthesecond-largestproportionoftheworkforceat32.3%,followedbyindustriesat25.1%(footnotea).

aWorldBank.

IndiaDatabase

(accessed15July2021).

bGovernmentofIndia.

IndiaataGlance–Profile

.

cAsianDevelopmentBank.BasicStatistics2019.Manila.

dWorldBank.

India-Overview

.

eUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme.2020.

HumanDevelopmentReport2020

.NewYork:UNDP.

WorkerspluckingchiliesfromthefieldsinRaichurdistrict,Karnataka.Asof2019,theagriculturesector

ofthecommunity,whichrequiresaformalsetupforimplementingthoseplansandactivities.4

TheGovernmentofIndia’sMinistryofStatisticsandProgrammeImplementation(MOSPI)usestheterm“nonprofitinstitutions”(NPIs).Italsoconductedthe largestandmostrecentsurveyavailableonNPIs,alarge subsetofcivilsociety,inIndia.Itdrawsitsdefinitionfrom theUnitedNationsHandbookonNon-ProfitInstitutions intheSystemofNationalAccounts,whichrefersto“(a)Organizationsthatare(b)notforprofitand,bylawor custom,donotdistributeanysurplustheymaygenerate tothosewhoownorcontrolthem,(c)areinstitutionally separatefromthegovernment,(d)areself-governing,and (e)non-compulsory.”5

ThelawsinIndiadefinecivilsocietyprimarilyasthenonprofitsector,basedonthecategoryofregistrationsuchassocieties,trusts,andnot-for-profitcompanies.Therehasyettobeaholisticdefinitionofcivilsocietyorganizations(CSOs)inthecountry.Thisbriefdefines

CSOsasallnonprofitorganizationsindependentfromthegovernmentandthemarketthatoperatearoundcommoninterests,purposes,andvalues.Giventheimmensediversityinsize,type,focusarea,andstructureofCSOs,thisdefinitionremainsfluid.

BriefHistoryofCivilSocietyinIndia

Indiahashadalongtraditionofvoluntaryservice,rootedintheconceptsofdharma(duty)anddaan(giving).Thesewerepartoftheteachingsacrossallreligioussections,encouragingpeopletohelpothersinneed.6Amajorsectionalsostronglybelievedintheconceptofkarma(doinggoodinthepresentlifewillcarryforwardintothenextincarnation,andviceversa),drawingitsrootsfromtheHindureligion.Therefore,voluntarycontributioninthecountrytookshapethroughthesocialandreligiousmovementsofservingothers.7Thepre-independenceerawitnessedseveralreformersfightingagainstsystemicsocialinjustices.Thisplayedasignificantroleinchallengingsocialnormsofthetime.Italsogaveriseto

3

CivilSocietyBrief:India

manyorganizationsfortheserviceofthedisadvantaged,suchasBrahmoSamaj(1828),TheosophicalSociety(1879),RamakrishnaMission(1897),andSevaSamiti(1914).8However,voluntarygroupsinthisperiodremainedlargelyunorganizedandoftenleanedmoretowardreliefwork.TheSirDorabjiTataGraduateSchoolofSocialWork(nowcalledtheTataInstituteofSocialSciences)playedanimportantroleinshapingcivilsocietyinIndiaasitledtotheemergenceofcommunitydevelopmentasascientificpractice.ItwasthefirstuniversityofsocialworkestablishedinIndiathatofferedastructuredteachingofthesubject.Theearly20thcenturyalsosawaconsiderablechangeinthemomentumtowardvoluntaryaction,drivenbyMahatmaGandhi’sphilosophyofsocialwelfare.Gandhi’sroleinthecountry’sdevelopmentmotivatedthemassestoassumesocialresponsibility.Basedontheprinciplesofself-relianceandupliftmentofthepoorest,numerousorganizationswereestablishedduringthisperiod,guidedbyhisteachings.9

Post-independence,IndiasawacontinuedriseinCSOs,referredtoasvoluntaryorganizationsorNGOsatthetime.Thefocusshiftedfromapurewelfareapproachtooneofdevelopment,whereorganizationsstartedtoplayabiggerroleinthepublicservicedeliveryofbasicgoods.Withgreaterawarenessofinequalitiesofcaste,class,andgender,manyorganizationscameforwardtocontributetotheupliftmentofthemarginalized.Thegoalspursuedbycivilsocietywitnessedadirectionfromtheinitiationofthegovernment’s5-yearplans.10Thefirstplanfor1951–1956emphasizedmaximumcooperationbetweenthestateandvoluntaryorganizations.Subsequent5-yearplansalsoprovidedCSOswiththeinformationandplatformstofurthertheirengagement.Forinstance,theAssociationofVoluntaryAgenciesforRuralDevelopmentwassetupasacommonplatformforvoluntarismontheissueofruraldevelopmentduringtheSecondFive-YearPlan(1958).11TheNationalServiceSchemewasinitiatedtoencouragevoluntaryserviceamongstudents,aspartoftheFourthFive-YearPlan(1969).12Later,decentralizationthroughthethree-tiersysteminIndiaprovidedthespaceformanyrepresentativegroupssuchasfarmers,fisherunions,andagriculturalcooperativestotakeshape.13Thus,institutionalizedmobilizationandcooperationbecame

morecommon.

Towardtheendofthe20thcentury,Indiawitnessedasignificantcontributionofcivilsocietythroughsocialchangemovements.Therewasashiftfromapurereform-anddevelopment-basedapproachtoarights-andempowerment-basedmodel.SomeofthefirstsuchmovementsweretheChipkoAndolanfortheprotectionandconservationoftrees(1973)andtheNarmadaBachaoAndolanforthepreventionofdisplacementof

StudentsataschoolinGuwahati,Assam.ThecivilsocietymovementcontributedtotheRighttoEducationActin2009,whichprovidesforfreeandcompulsoryeducationtoallchildrenagedsixto14yearsinIndia.

communitiesduetodamconstruction(1985).Thelast2decadeshaveseenothermajorcampaignsfortherighttofood,work,primaryeducation,health,andinformation,alldrivenbyvarioussectionsofcivilsociety.Inthesameperiod,CSOshavecometoberecognizedasimportantdevelopmentpartnersofthestateandasrecipientsofinternationalandbilateralassistance.14Thishasincreasedthevisibilityofbiggerorganizations,groups,andmovements,withanoften-reducedfocusonsolelylocalizedgrassrootsgroups.

CivilSocietyToday

Today,civilsocietyinIndiahasexpandedimmensely,

coveringawiderangeofwork.Thenatureofsuchwork

isverydiverse;therefore,thisbriefcapturesonlylarger

trendsandstatistics.

TypesofCivilSocietyOrganizations

Basedonitscomposition,civilsocietyinIndiacanbe

broadlycategorizedasfollows:

(i)NGOs.CSOsaremostlysynonymouswithNGOs,

whichareprofessionalorganizationsthatareprivatelyrun,notforprofit,self-governing,andvoluntary.Theyregisterwiththegovernmentbutworkindependently.15NGOsservethecommunitiesthattheytargetandoperateatdifferentlevels,fromlocalgrassrootstonationalandinternational.

4

CivilSocietyBrief:India

Theyworkacrossarangeofissuessuchassectionsofthesociety.Morerecentsocial

sanitation,housing,women’sempowerment,andmovementshaveaddressedanticorruption,

mentalhealth,amongothers.secularism,civicrights,andwomen’ssafety,among

(ii)Community-basedorganizations(CBOs).CBOsothers.Oftentimes,thesemovementsareignited

arevoluntary,bottom-up,grassrootsorganizationsthroughoneoraseriesofsignificanteventsinthe

locatedinspecificcommunitiesthatcatertocountry.Severalsocialmovementshaveledto

thelocalneedsoftheareasthattheyworkin.outcomessuchastheenactmentoflaws,protection

Theirmembersarealsobeneficiariesofthetodisadvantagedgroups,andothercitizen-centric

work.Whiletheyaremostlyassociatedwithruralreforms.

areas(e.g.,women’slendingcircles),theynow(vii)Youthandstudentorganizations.Theseare

alsohaveaconsiderablepresenceinurbanareasorganizationsthatpromotethewelfareofyouth

throughresidentwelfareassociationsandotherandstudents,mostoftenalsorunbythem.This

neighborhoodorganizations.16CBOsqualifyasaincludestheAllIndiaYouthFederation,National

sub-setofCSOs.CadetsCorps,andseveralstudentunions.Many

(iii)Religiousandfaith-basedorganizations.Thesebiggerorganizationsalsohavetheirrepresentative

aremadeupofpeoplewhopursuecommongoalswingsamonguniversities.

basedonreligiouspracticesandteachings.InIndia,

untilthe1970s,thiswasthemostprominentpartGiventhevarietyofCSOsinIndia,thisclassificationis

ofcivilsociety,workingintheareasofsocialwelfarenotexhaustiveandcanoverlap.Thecategorizationalso

suchaseducationandhealthcare.Examplesdoesnotcapturemanyhybridandtransienttypesof

includetheRamakrishnaMissionandUnaniCSOs,suchasdisasterreliefcommitteesandemergency

medicineclinics.17responsegroups.

(iv)Membershipassociations.Theseareassociations

basedonself-selectionbyindividuals,withtheSectorRepresentations

goalofcateringtothemembers’interests.TheyA2019studyaddressedtheroleofcivilsocietyasan

canbefurtherdividedintothreecategories:intermediarybetweenconstituenciesandthestateby

(i)representativeofdifferentcommunityrepresentingthevoicesofthepoorandvulnerablegroups,

groupssuchastradeworkers,peasants,fishers,articulatingtheirneeds,andfacilitatingchangewithand

farmers(e.g.,theConsortiumofIndianFarmersforthem.21CivilsocietyinIndiarepresentsawiderangeof

Association);(ii)representativeofprofessionalsgroupsandsectors.Thisincludesdisadvantagedsections

includingdoctors,teachers,andlawyers(e.g.,thesuchasthescheduledcastes,scheduledtribes,indigenous

IndianMedicalAssociation);and(iii)socioculturalgroups,womenandchildren,peoplewithdisabilities,

forsportsandrecreationalpurposessuchasyoutholderpeople,andminoritygroupsbasedonreligion,class,

clubs(e.g.,gymkhanaclubs).18gender,andsexualidentity,amongotherparameters.

(v)Researchorganizationsandthinktanks.TheseCivilsocietyalsorepresentssectorsbasedon(i)work

areestablishedwiththeprimarygoalofresearchsuchasfarmers,fishers,andtraders;(ii)geography

onarangeofissuesincludingsocialdevelopment,suchasurbanandruralsettlers;andiii)ownershipand

politics,economics,andforeignsecurity.Indiaworkingrightssuchaslandlesslaborers,informalworkers,

hasalonghistoryofresearchorganizationsandandmigrantlaborers.Manyorganizationsundertakea

thinktanksfromthepre-independenceera,bothmultisectorapproachbyrepresentingmorethanoneof

bornwithinthecountryandthosethatexpandedthesegroupsandofteninterlinkedcausestopromote

operationsinIndia.Forexample,theObservertheirwelfare.CSOs,basedontheirsectorfocus,aimto

ResearchFoundationwasstartedinIndiatocontributetotheirgroups’social,economic,andpolitical

undertakeresearchonforeignpolicy,economy,empowerment.

anddevelopment,amongotherareas,whereasthe

RockefellerFoundationexpandeditsbaseinIndiaCivilsociety’sworkforthesegroupsalsoevolveswith

toresearchonpublichealth.19time.Forexample,duringthe1980s,womenCSOs

(vi)Socialmovements.Theseconstitutegroupsfocusedonbroadersocialjusticeandincomegeneration

ofcitizensthatraisetheirvoicesforcommonprograms.TheSelf-EmployedWomen’sAssociationis

interestsandcauses.Indiahasarichhistoryofoneoftheoldestandmostprominentexamples.During

socialmovements,especiallywithitsjourneytothe1990s,theemphasisofwomen’sorganizations

claimindependence.20Before1947,thecountryexpandedtoinclusionandempowerment.22Therefore,

witnessednationwidegroupsofcitizensspeakingthemodelformanyshiftedfrompureincomegeneration

outforthewelfareofthemostdisadvantagedtomicrofinanceandself-helpgroups.Fromthe2000s,

5

CivilSocietyBrief:India

BeneficiariesshowingtheirhousingleasedocumentsinKolkata,WestBengal.ManyCSOshavesupportedpublichousingprojectsinIndia,makingtheprocessmoreparticipatoryandcollaborative.

severalofthemalsotookupthemoreingrainedissuesbehindwomen’sunequalplaceinthesociety,suchasgender-basedviolence,laborforceparticipation,andwomen’ssafety.

Advocacies

Inadditiontorepresentingdifferentsectors,civilsocietyinIndiaengagesinadvocacy.Thefocusareasarewidespreadandaddressdifferentlevelsofstakeholders.Advocacyeffortscanhavethegoaloflegislation,collaboration,resistance,communityparticipation,fundingsupport,orotherobjectives.Advocacytakesplaceatthelocal,subnational,national,orinternationallevel,withvaryingdegreesofinfluence.Civilsocietyadvocacyinitiativestypicallyconvenedifferentstakeholdersconnectedtothecause,suchastheaffectedpopulation,activists,academics,technicalexperts,andpolicymakers.Italsodeploystoolsincludingmassmovements,socialcampaigns,taskforce,orpolicyactiongroups.23

Thefocusareasofcivilsociety’sadvocacyinIndiaarediverse,rangingfromenvironmentalprotection,humanrights,resettlement,andrehabilitation,topovertyeradication,genderequality,accesstoeducation,andsocialinclusion.Certaincivilsocietyactorshavespecific

priorityareas,whileothersundertakeadvocacyonmultiplecauses.Someorganizationsspecializeinspecificadvocaciesthroughtheirpredefinedroles,suchastheHAQ:CentreforChildRights.Somehaveaseparatebranchwithintheirlargeroperations,suchasSavetheChildren,whileothersundertakeadvocacyasneeded.Indiahaswitnessedmanystrongadvocacyinitiativesinthepast,whichhavecontributedtosignificantnationallegislation,includingtheRighttoInformation,RighttoEducation,NationalRuralEmploymentGuaranteeAct,etc.24Civilsocietyinitiativeshavealsoledtowidercommunityparticipationonthecrucialissuesofwomen’ssafety,corruption,andconstitutionalrights,andtherebystrengthenedrelatedexistinglaws.

NatureofWork

CSOsinIndiahaveevolvedwithtimeandwithchangingrequirements.TheresearchbyPRIAcapturesthisinitsreportspublishedin2000,2011,and2015.Earlier,inthelate1990sandearly2000s,workbycivilsocietycouldbroadlybeelaboratedasservicedeliverytoenableaccesstobasicgoodsandservicesbycitizens;mobilizingtoempowerthemtounderstandanddemandtheirrights;supportingotherorganizationsinresearch,capacitybuilding,andnetworking;advocacytoraisevoicesagainstinjusticeanddemandlegislativechanges;andphilanthropytogatherandprovideresourcestograssrootsgroups.25Whilemostofthesecivilsocietyfunctionscontinuetostay,thenatureofworkhasevolvedtoalsofocusonthefollowing:

(i)Supportservicedelivery.Giventheexpandedroleofthegovernmentinprovidingbasicservices,theworkbymanyCSOshasnowshiftedtoextendsupporttowardeffectiveandtimelydeliveryoftheseservices.26CSOsensurethisthroughawarenessgeneration,evidence,collaboration,andadvocacy.Thishasalsobroadenedthefocusofthenonprofitsectorfromaccesstoqualityandadequateservices;therefore,manyorganizationstodayhavetakenupsupportivefunctions,suchasimprovingthereachandqualityofpubliceducation,health,andtransport.

(ii)Draftingpolicyactionplansandlegislation.Many

CSOstodayfocusonstrongerconsultationand

collaborationmechanismswiththegovernment

tosupportpolicyactionplansandlegislation.27

Throughrepresentativetaskforcegroups,civil

societyhasformallycontributedtothedrafting

oflegislation,includingtheRighttoFoodActand

RighttoInformationAct.Withsuchmechanisms,

organizationsnowalsohaveadefinedpriority

ofworkingcloselywithpolicymakerstoenable

structuralandscalablechanges.

6

CivilSocietyBrief:India

(iii)Researchandevidence.Withthegrowthof

researchandevidenceinthepolicylandscapeinIndia,civilsocietyplaysasignificantrole.

CSOsgatherrelevantdatafromthegrassroots,implementandrefineprograms,anddrivedecisionsrootedinevidence.Furthermore,thinktanksandorganizationswithaprimarilyresearch-drivenrolehavealsofoundspacesinthepolicydiscoursetocontributetosuchchange.

(iv)Innovation.CivilsocietyinIndiaisseenasakey

playertodevelopandscaleinnovativemodelsofchange.28GiventhediverserangeandscopeofCSOs,theyhaveauniquestrengthtopilottestmodels,sharegoodpractices,andreplicatethroughexample.Forinstance,theStateGovernmentofKarnatakascaledtheMysoreResettlementandDevelopmentAgency’sinnovativemodelsofself-helpgroupsandwatershedmanagement.29

Apartfromthis,civilsocietycontinuesitslong-standingtraditionofmobilizationonsubstantialissues.CivilsocietyinIndiaalsocontinuestoprovideformalandinformalplatformstofacilitatedialogueonkeyissues,beitthestateofaffairs,roleofcitizens,orgovernmentpolicies.30CSOsinIndiathereforeprovideanintegralspacetobringtogetherdiversegroups.

StatisticsonCivilSocietyOrganizations

ThereisapaucityofdataoncivilsocietyinIndia.MOSPIin2017recommendedthedevelopmentofanappropriatemechanismtocompiledataonallNPIsservinghouseholds,includingNGOsatthenationalandstatelevel.31OtherstakeholderssuchasVANIandtheAshokaCentreforSocialImpactandPhilanthropy(CSIP)havealsostronglyadvocatedtheneedforsuchdatabases.Furthermore,duetothelackofacommondefinitionofCSOsinIndia,thecurrentdatavarybasedondifferentinterpretationsoftheterm,suchasNGOs,NPIs,orvoluntaryorganizations.Datahavebeenmostcommonlycollectedbasedonthelegislationunderwhichtheorganizationisregistered.

ThemostcomprehensivenationwidestatisticsoncivilsocietyarefromthereportreleasedbyMOSPIin2013.ThestudycapturesstatisticsonNPIs,32includingallinstitutionsregisteredundertheSocietiesRegistrationAct(SRA)1860,BombayPublicTrustsAct1950oritsstatevariants,andSection25oftheIndianCompaniesAct1956.33MostCSOsinIndiaareregisteredatleastassocietiesundertheSRA.Thereportincludesdataupto2008.34Toprovideamorerecentestimate,thisbriefcollatesdatafromadiversesetofsourcestoexplainthestatisticsoncivilsocietyinIndiatoday.

In2015,afteranorderfromtheSupremeCourt,theCentralBureauofInvestigation(CBI)mappedalltheregisteredNGOsinIndia.Theirreportin2015–2016disclosed3.1millionregisteredNGOsinthecountry,barringthreestatesthathadnotsubmittedthedatabythen.ThisfigureisbasedontheNGOsregisteredundertheSRA.35Afterincludingthedatafromthethreeremainingstates,thetotalnumberofNGOsinthecountrywillbemorethan3.1million.Outofthese,only8%–10%hadregularlyfiledtheiraccountswiththeRegistrarofSocieties,detailingthereceiptandexpenditureoffunds.36Thishighlightedtheneedforthegovernmenttoengagewithorganizationsandensureproperrecordsaremaintained,includingahighercomplianceratebyCSOsinfilingtheiraccounts.

Outofthe3.1millionNGOs,UttarPradeshhasthehighestnumberwith548,148organizations,followedbyMaharashtrawith518,437,andKeralawith369,137.Outofallunionterritories,DelhihasthehighestnumberofregisteredNGOs:76,566.37Figure1showsthestate-wisedivisionofNGOsinIndiabasedontheinformationsubmittedbytheCBItotheSupremeCourtin2015–2016.AtablewiththedetailedfiguresforeachstateandunionterritoryhasbeenprovidedinAppendix1.

NGOsand,forthemostpartCSOs,canbecategorizedbasedonthesectortheyworkinorthepurposeoftheirorganization.Whilethe2012MOSPIdatabasedividesorganizationsin12categories,38therehasbeennosubsequentlarge-scaledatacollectionexercise.

ThecurrentgovernmenthascreatedaplatformcalledNGODarpanfortheregistrationoforganizationstopromotecollaborationwiththem.Itprovidessector-wisefocusareasofthe118,350NGOsregisteredontheportal39(nearly4%ofthetotalinIndia).Figure2showsthedivisionforthemostcommonlyrepresentedsectorswithinthissetofNGOs.Thehighestnumberoforganizationsarefocusedoneducationandliteracy,followedbyhealthandfamilywelfare,children’sissues,women’sdevelopmentandempowerment,andvocationaltraining.40TrendsfromthiscanbeappliedtothelargersetofCSOsinthecountry;however,morein-depthresearchisrequiredtoverifythis.Thedetailedtableofsector-baseddivisionfromNGODarpanisprovidedinAppendix2.

CSOsinIndiareceivefundingfromadiversesetofsourcessuchasthegovernment;foreignfunding;anddomesticfundingthroughindividualdonation