学士毕业设计中英文翻译

BridgeWaterwayOpeningsInamajorityofcasestheheightandlengthofabridgedependsolelyupontheamountofclearwaterwayopeningthatmustbeprovidedtoaccommodatethefloodwatersofthestream.Actually,theproblemgoesbeyondthatofmerelyaccommodatingthefloodwatersandrequirespredictionofthevariousmagnitudesoffloodsforgiventimeintervals.Itwouldbeimpossibletostatethatsomegivenmagnitudeisthemaximumthatwilleveroccur,anditisthereforeimpossibletodesignforthemaximum,sinceitcannotbeascertained.Itseemsmorelogicaltodesignforapredictedfloodofsomeselectedinterval---afloodmagnitudethatcouldreasonablybeexpectedtooccuroncewithinagivennumberofyears.Forexample,abridgemaybedesignedfora50-yearfloodinterval;thatis,forafloodwhichisexpected(accordingtothelawsofprobability)tooccurontheaverageofonetimein50years.Oncethisdesignfloodfrequency,orintervalofexpectedoccurrence,hasbeendecided,theanalysistodetermineamagnitudeismade.Wheneverpossible,thisanalysisisbasedupongaugedstreamrecords.Inareasandforstreamswherefloodfrequencyandmagnituderecordsarenotavailable,ananalysiscanstillbemade.Withdatafromgaugedstreamsinthevicinity,regionalfloodfrequenciescanbeworkedout;withacorrelationbetweenthecomputeddischargefortheungaugedstreamandtheregionalfloodfrequency,afloodfrequencycurvecanbecomputedforthestreaminquestion.HighwayCulvertsAnyclosedconduitusedtoconductsurfacerunofffromonesideofaroadwaytotheotherisreferredtoasaculvert.Culvertsvaryinsizefromlargemultipleinstallationsusedinlieuofabridgetosmallcircularorellipticalpipe,andtheirdesignvariesinsignificance.Acceptedpracticetreatsconduitsundertheroadwayasculverts.Althoughtheunitcostofculvertsismuchlessthanthatofbridges,theyarefarmorenumerous,normallyaveragingabouteighttothemile,andrepresentagreatercostinhighway.Statisticsshowthatabout15centsofthehighwayconstructiondollargoestoculverts,ascomparedwith10centsforbridge.Culvertdesignthenisequallyasimportantasthatofbridgesorotherphasesofhighwayandshouldbetreatedaccordingly.MunicipalStormDrainageInurbanandsuburbanareas,runoffwatersarehandledthroughasystemofdrainagestructuresreferredtoasstormsewersandtheirappurtenances.Thedrainageproblemisincreasedintheseareasprimarilyfortworeasons:theimperviousnatureoftheareacreatesaveryhighrunoff;andthereislittleroomfornaturalwatercourses.Itisoftennecessarytocollecttheentirestormwaterintoasystemofpipesandtransmititoverconsiderabledistancesbeforeitcanbeloosedagainassurfacerunoff.Thiscollectionandtransmissionfurtherincreasetheproblem,sinceallofthewatermustbecollectedwithvirtuallynoponding,thuseliminatinganynaturalstorage;andthoughincreasedvelocitythepeakrunoffsarereachedmorequickly.Also,theshortertimesofpeakscausethesystemtobemoresensitivetoshort-duration,high-intensityrainfall.Stormsewers,likeculvertsandbridges,aredesignedforstormsofvariousintensity–return-periodrelationship,dependingupontheeconomyandamountofpondingthatcanbetolerated.AirportDrainageTheproblemofprovidingproperdrainagefacilitiesforairportsissimilarinmanywaystothatofhighwaysandstreets.However,becauseofthelargeandrelativelyflatsurfaceinvolvedthevaryingsoilconditions,theabsenceofnaturalwatercoursesandpossiblesideditches,andthegreaterconcentrationofdischargeattheterminusoftheconstructionarea,somephasesoftheproblemaremorecomplex.Fortheaverageairporttheoverallareatobedrainedisrelativelylargeandanextensivedrainagesystemisrequired.Themagnitudeofsuchasystemmakesitevenmoreimperativethatsoundengineeringprinciplesbasedonallofthebestavailabledatabeusedtoensurethemosteconomicaldesign.Overdesignoffacilitiesresultsinexcessivemoneyinvestmentwithnoreturn,andunderdesigncanresultinconditionshazardoustotheairtrafficusingtheairport.Inothertoensuresurfacesthataresmooth,firm,stable,andreasonablyfreefromflooding,itisnecessarytoprovideasystemwhichwilldoseveralthings.Itmustcollectandremovethesurfacewaterfromtheairportsurface;interceptandremovesurfacewaterflowingtowardtheairportfromadjacentareas;collectandremoveanyexcessivesubsurfacewaterbeneaththesurfaceoftheairportfacilitiesandinmanycaseslowertheground-watertable;andprovideprotectionagainsterosionoftheslopingareas.DitchesandCut-slopeDrainageAhighwaycrosssectionnormallyincludesoneandoftentwoditchesparallelingtheroadway.Generallyreferredtoassideditchestheseservetointerceptthedrainagefromslopesandtoconductittowhereitcanbecarriedundertheroadwayorawayfromthehighwaysection,dependinguponthenaturaldrainage.Toalimitedextenttheyalsoservetoconductsubsurfacedrainagefrombeneaththeroadwaytopointswhereitcanbecarriedawayfromthehighwaysection.Asecondtypeofditch,generallyreferredtoasacrownditch,isoftenusedfortheerosionprotectionofcutslopes.Thisditchalongthetopofthecutslopeservestointerceptsurfacerunofffromtheslopesaboveandconductittonaturalwatercoursesonmilderslopes,thuspreventingtheerosionthatwouldbecausedbypermittingtherunofftospilldownthecutfaces.12ConstructiontechniquesThedecisionofhowabridgeshouldbebuiltdependsmainlyonlocalconditions.Theseincludecostofmaterials,availableequipment,allowableconstructiontimeandenvironmentalrestriction.Sinceallthesevarywithlocationandtime,thebestconstructiontechniqueforagivenstructuremayalsovary.IncrementallaunchingorPush-outMethodInthisformofconstructionthedeckispushedacrossthespanwithhydraulicramsorwinches.Decksofprestressedpost-tensionedprecastsegments,steelorgirdershavebeenerected.Usuallyspansarelimitedto50～60mtoavoidexcessivedeflectionandcantileverstresses,althoughgreaterdistanceshavebeenbridgedbyinstallingtemporarysupporttowers.Typicallythemethodismostappropriateforlong,multi-spanbridgesintherange300~600m,but,muchshorterandlongerbridgeshavebeenconstructed.Unfortunately,thisveryeconomicalmodeofconstructioncanonlybeappliedwhenboththehorizontalandverticalalignmentsofthedeckareperfectlystraight,oralternativelyofconstantradius.Wherepushinginvolvesasmalldownwardgrade(4%~5%)thenabrakingsystemshouldbeinstalledtopreventthedeckslippingawayuncontrolledandheavybracingisthenneededattherestrainingpiers.啦Br朝idge灵lau闯n杀ch供ing貌dema菌nds丰very堪car腥eful亩sur泥veyi胶nga乏nds故etti灰ngo凉utw密ith踩cont树inuo汇usa纳ndp冶reci业sec雁heck黑sma厚deo怀fde孙ckd捷efle航ctio影ns.类Ali今ght捐alum郊inum戒or奶stee澡l-la拐un仁ch韵ing很nose鲜for录mst喜heh劲ead达oft拜hed贴eck境top刊rovi粱deg详uida寄nce旺over梯the狗pie冷r.S尚peci员alt馅eflo蔑nor肠chr艇ome-聋nick决els漫teel并pla凳teb射eari姥ngs集are蓬used错to搞redu案ces雕lidi点ngf世rict伍ion铜toa丰bout辽5%醋oft按hew流eigh距t,t擦hus随slen刺der曾pier袍swo遗uld产norm弊ally惨be合supp静leme腥nted割wit牵hbr缓aced狮col紧umns感to独avoi柔dcr朽acki商nga出ndo手ther志dam撑age.年The参sec涉olum祥nsw项ould猛gen唇eral丰lya炎lso瓦supp胡ort抗the诞temp择orar衬yfr亿icti殊onb斯eari卫ngs菊and子help纸ste尘ert陵hen敬ose.耳In谨the晌cas剂eof港pre晶cast巷con漏stru述ctio析n,i逢deal受lys害egme哑nts厚shou延ldb保eca妇sto珠nbe欢dsn郑ear们the结abut做ment分san旨dtr猎ansf着erre鸟dby疮rai朝lto士the旬pos筝t-te产nsio存ning菠bed耗,th决eac债tual宪tra削nspo跌rtd用ista泡nce护obvi党ousl评ybe都ing垄kept起to前the孝mini惯mu济m忍.Us气uall评ya稼segm亡ent治isc镰ast泥agai列nst练the化face贼of体the堤prev手ious逃lyc世once脖rted棵uni暴tto熄ens废ure紧ago么odf川itw污hen尖fina凑lly狭glue浪din技pla仅cew敬ith龙ane鞋poxy杂res如in.饿Ift缝his闹proc顺edur泊eis孙not菠ado肃pted杆,g棚aps型ofa妨ppro搞xima花tely望500你mms洁hold特be秃left抚bet重ween顿seg裳ment策swi看tht傍her茎einf扩orce厘ment愤sru斤nnin寿gth厕roug帖han社d牵stre凶ssed贴tog误ethe涂rto智for盆ma啊comp训lete踢uni护t,抬but糠when柜acc逃ess笋ors幼pace伟on将the绝emba膀nkme侦nti按sat缴ap暴remi缘umi侵tma貌ybe湾nec解essa京ryt炼ola灯unch赤the平dec提kin吊term脱itte泽ntly脚to尺allo姜wse初ctio伶nst哑obe搅add关edp拿rogr狗essi屑vely熄.Th晃eco睬rrep说ondi怨ngp举rest筋ress饿ing迎arra正ngem洋ents艳,b机oth炕for抓the梯temp兰orar各yan篇dpe煌rman没ent斗cond屠itio服nsw尼ould挡be蔽more住com值plic劳ated榜and毛car香eful僻cal诉cula敌tion报sne泛eded兔at午all被posi春tion植s.企The圣pri杀cipa糊lad扶vant差age白oft下heb市ridg扇e-la筹unch席ing极tech扰niqu外eis渡the誉sav壶ing响inf世alse尺work束,es涝peci减ally句for称hig断hde硬cks.讨Seg饭ment颂sca椅nal锹sob沟efa懂bric骨ated趣or垄prec适ast混ina接pro泛tect网ede勒nvir却onme以ntu撇sing肾hig门hly变prod袖ucti读vee巷quip呼ment本.Fo夹rco哨ncre边tes环egme堂nt,含typi葛call宋ytw针ose味gmen尼tar梯ela早ide珠ach出week芦(us载uall吴y10膏~3驾0m芝inl侦engt针han疏dpe泥rhap规s30久0to素400剂ton炸nes壁inw廉eigh倍t)a织nda洽fter紧pos色tten榴sion康ing绣incr对emen宝tall类yla凳unch厉eda削tab芬out罗20m莲per辈day导dep烘endi奇ngu燃pon追the陵winc好hing忧/jac苏king毒equ撑ipme廉nt.孤Bala泰nced滑Can足tiul凤ever淡Con折stru恭ctio偷n顶De悔velo询pmen麦tin站box射sec讽tion按and铜pre势stre仆ssed庙con骂cret催ele需dto制sho域rts屿egme况ntb由eing然ass逝embl刚edo俗rca滑sti纠npl语ace该onf氏alse拔work缸to守form庆ab忧eam既off旁ull姐road真way颗widt喊h.S化ubse候quen倘tly前the匙meth笨odw服asr添efin罩edv哲irtu类ally兄to脑elim祖inat四eth鉴efa忌lsew絮ork殖byu耕sing询ap杨revi功ousl苹yco魂nstr渐ucte民dse雹ctio胶nof喝the察bea麦mto杨pro静vide脆the摘fix拼ing荣for转asu徒bseq域uent德lyc浮anti台leve烛red卧sect瘦ion.沉The延pri衣ncip拾lei刮sde裂mons伟rate啦dst谊ep-b测y-st打epi糖nth乌eex枕ampl古esh距own染inF菌ig.1色.烈In架the停sim拍ple贼case傍ill警ustr撤ated熄,th抓ebr纲idge余con紧sist颠sof住thr坟ees姑pans抢in堆the里rati堪o1:暂1:2.辞Fir圾stt帐hea喷butm言ents材and锹pie哭rsa参rec启onst校ruct辫edi宽ndep精ende固ntly努fro雾mth汁ebr李idge浩sup调erst撞ruct慌ure.弯The扶seg著ment树imm窜edia哄tely姥abo游vee移ach历pier财is适then目eit爱her星cast嗽in芬situ晌or圆plac似eda吃sa棋prec锐ast宾unit衔.Th予ede滔cki裁ssu疮bseq嘱uent暑lyf斤orme货dby买add罩ing龟sect阴ions树sym送metr进ical较lye赴ithe牧rsi喊de.依Id梅eall赶yse兄ctio狐nse宋ithe选rsi富des赢houl粮dbe谎pla艺ced桌simu鼓ltan兆eous复lyb括utt葡his县isu梁sual扣lyi剂mpra动ctic朴able滤and的som诚ein闷bala陷nce靠will唉res父ult岭from肾the决ext桐ras附egme北ntw完eigh指t,w惩ind缸forc更es,孔cons求truc暮tion钳pla丑nta服ndm武ater驰ial.亚Whe疼nth渴eca拍ntil勇ever库has暗rea伤ched掩bot盗hth纹eab苦utme块nta暴ndc糟entr慢esp级an,w境ork怠can毯begi烛nfr辟omt锦heo框ther赵pie题r,净and下the予rema巴inde先rof顿the大dec关kco结mple中ted陈ina勇sim乎ilar此man发ner彩.Fi阵nall披yth单etw敲oin字divi查dual还can镜tile袜vers坏are戴lin坦ked鱼att探hec陶entr夹eby蜂ak浙eys该egme糠ntt鼠ofo蛾rma示sin梨gle你span怜.Th怖eke苍yis榴nor输mall扫yca宫sti机nsi长tu.设Th卸epr雾oced起ure亡init呈iall法yre圣quir肌est画hef剂irst斜sec纤tion民sab膝ove荣the舰colu世mna砖ndp腊erha番pso焦neo幸rtw证oea涂chs减ide似tob逃eer好ecte脉dco激nven领tion颂ally暂eit彩her仍ins村itu妨conc尖rete哪or倚prec色ast戒and瞒temp捏orar拾ily株supp惰orte篮dwh汤ile防stee流lte小ndon勤sar效eth酿read浇eda立ndp跪ost-乔tens彩ione元d.宏Subs径eque评ntp潮airs合of确sect聪ion谱are凉adde脾dan盒dhe点ldi域npl歪ace商byp鹊ost-庙tens洁ioni像ngf腹ollo烂wed适byg愈rout冻ing梅oft喇hed恭ucts娘.Du鞠ring暖thi过sph碰ase震only灵the症can趣tile筐ver遵tend器ons眨int猜heu食pper理fla丘nge豪and虚webs浴are孝ten殊sion亭ed.默Cont口inui元tyt球endo拆nsa膊res幸tres让sed熔afte劣rth伶eke验yse甚ctio拍nha誓sbe涨enc肌ast杯inp描lace苹.Th侨efi侍nal浓gap摧left起bet摄ween肃the贡two贪hal逢fsp慢ans寒shou尚ldb绍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盯Qual德ity浩cont流rol:黑Thi滑sis破imp奶orta矮ntf净ora踩nym碍etho垂dco树nstr展ucti歌on,族but愁iti壮smo敞res后ofo锹rth伍eco挂mpli污cate牙dco宪nstr洽ucti慕ont摘echn氏ique律s.C捷urin注gof萝con效cret旅e,p炒ost-饥tens回ioni废ng,本join弊tpr贤epar讲atio阁n,e哗tc.纲are贤detr拆imen亏tal疯toa梳suc砍cess齐ful豪stru唉ctur诊e.T引hes福ite鞠pers糟onne问lmu铸stb惨ema吃dea周ware缎of喜the扎mini步mum着conc炎rete睬str每engt奋hsr摊equi维red庸for呆post精-ten首sion美ing,册for做mre蛛mova涉l,f丙alse体work威rem诸oval稠,la师unch很ing元and润othe宝rst董eps圣ofo算pera趋tion诚s.形Gene鼠rall买ysp级eaki炸ng,榜thes菊ead填vanc狭edc烛onst怕ruct擦ion久tech府niqu堆esr访equi棚rem洪ore芽engi距neer熊ing幅work友tha涛nth诱eco筝nven仇tion苏alf潜alse领work读typ贡eco嘴nstr峰ucti塞on,壤but迅the寇savi松ngc带ould趋be焦sign油ific禾ant.省大桥涵洞统在大多数织情况中桥殿梁的高度死和跨度完纸全取决于弦河流的流形量，桥梁烧的高度和费跨度必须慨能够容纳离最大洪水赌量议.佛事实上核，找酷这不仅仅久是洪水最榴大流量的使问局题理,哨还需要在盼不同时间错间隔预测唯不同程度蹄的水惑灾龄狗。有些给聋定的最大都洪水发生羽时的最大辰洪水流量船的发生是菊不可能的狼，因此将衡此最大洪谨水流量作夏为设计的顾依据是不卧确定的。爪似乎较为调合理的设弱计是某些收特定时间鹊区间内预宣测洪病水隔—踏—轿划分洪水尘的流量等挖级，据此卖可以合理汽地预测在地某给定的恒年限内发孕生一次水攻灾的可能弓性喘。糟轿例胜如纽,亏一桥可设毅计出链了块5以0暗年的一遇峰的洪水，巴即街畜一个抗洪摩可靠概率脸发生的平凡均一次壤性箩5糠0逗年蓄。霞拌一旦满足丛这个预期裤设计洪水困频率，在粮这个区间饿发生已经捐决定情，子删以分析确谋定震级船。中恋只要有可疏能，这种赞分析应该汉是基于地拌表径流纪钞录帅。房悼在某些地霞区，河流氧洪水频率污和震级记搂录不详时垮分析也就骨可以做了黎。副廊这些基于丽已经记录尚的数孕据斩,亚即区域洪异水频率就台可以算出爷。在大部素分地区，淋洪水频率放和最大洪屋水的记录耻是不可靠抖的，但是窝这些数据蓬还是在用瘦。利用这净些来自分朴布地区的柱数据，该写地区的洪话水发生频孔次通过综新合统计就陪能计算出坊来。依据升这些来自凯分布地区巧的数据和妇该地区的抹洪水发生因频次之间蚕的关联，肆洪水的发镜生的数据艳图就能计韵算出来在匪问题上旷。宁公路暗渠究任何露于奔地面的渠货道是用来袭进行从一屡边流向另符一边疏导远地表径流据的，简称霸为涵洞影。旦撇涵洞的大袭小不同，灭根据不同戚的设计用乘途，大多策要重新装躬置两,凤用来代替姨桥梁上的缝小圆形或越椭圆形攻管域尘。去撤大家大都迈接受在道竭路的下面短设暗渠这码种做法，霉在高速公阻路上虽然例单价涵洞症远小于桥屈梁，但他腿们是多不越胜数的漫，跟锁通常平均境约八里一坏个，成本掩会更咸大响.脏统计资料叶显示，每犁个涵洞的这造价大约抛为高速公丸路建设谣的旦2/读3澡。蛙原在高速公秤路设计中流涵洞设计叹是和桥梁秋设计同样截重杀要绪,供应当据此闭区别对待悬。敬腰市政雨水揉排水系统倦在城市和也郊区，地状表径流水咐是通过系顿统排水设板施来处理味的，涉及已到暴风雨寨疏水道及雨其附属物烟。截园在这些地棚区排水问使题逐渐增期加特,敲主要有两存个原因诸：是肥抗渗性地无面形成地徐表径流很跌大。另外仍是容纳排抚水、雨水饲的天然河老道的空间泳很少垒。炕隙在这些雨爷水能够散蹲发之前收浅集暴风雨统水进入排倦水系统并辆运到很远尸的地方是受有必要的春，这种收颤集和传输狮进一步增称加了上述协排水问题咐，由于所贸有的水必蚕须收集达见到几乎没背有积水，坏以消除任捞何天然贮伤存葱。笋隶虽然地表富径流增长糕速度的高诊峰达成更些快率。茶旗同摸时皂,仍短时期的罢高峰、高词强度的降滴雨造成系筐统的破坏帅也较为敏光感。暴风虚雨疏水道然下水道。吼如涵洞和大桥梁，是指专为周期耐不同强度落的暴风雨或来设计的骆，这取决厌于经济和哲水的流量态，选择可沸以接受的谁方案。玩机场排水氧系统表机场排水夫系统问题探是在许多掏方面与高刚速公路和绞街道类似躲，用适当茅的排水设扁施来改善妥机场排水横系统秋，使女但控是引,斗由于规模未大，在相方对平坦表僵面上，涉富及到不同绒的土壤条融件而且缺庄乏天然水果道和可能王的方沟时勤，们倦需要更集诚中地解决券排水问题为，但有些夸阶段问题呢较为复杂乎。昆嚼对于一般脚的机场，渣机场排水算系统总面柿积是比较牲大的，但嘉一个庞大牧的排水系立统更是重寒要的，在咱健全工程竞原则基础解上所有的雹最佳数据姓可以用来匠确保最经锋济的设计栗。毒泳超过设计欣要求的设教计设施，泼将导致过戴度投资且缸收益小转，然枯低强度设准计又可能勾导致空中茎交通使用鼓时机场不宽满足要求莲。鼻哈在其他方如面应有一蒸个排水系孩统以确保况表面光额滑肯,禁坚塔实万,轰稳定和合持理免于水挖患，它必暖须从机场手地面收集讨并清除地临表水，拦贡截并清除密邻近地区旗地表水的锻流向机场违，切厦收集和减夕少任何过揭多的表层错水渗入机偿场设施底僻层，并在钱许多情况钢下的地下糠水位英，抹张并坡地提旬供保护水蔽土丑,海防止水土自流失。凡沟渠和削麻减密-荡斜坡的排卡水苹公路交叉层口段通常勉包括一条斑和时常二助条与车道横平行的沟拜渠，笼统谈地称为侧雹沟。这些评斜坡有助羽于拦截排泛水，并进睬行疏导到有其他地方汇，在巷道站或远离公赢路的一段卡，可以靠冤自然排水演。剧提在有限的鄙范围内，便他们也将浙进行地下些排水的疏店导，疏导锹到巷道并峡运往远离咸公路的地棍方喘。吵议第二类型挑的沟渠经，筋础一般称为缸一种冠沟眠，通常用黎于冲刷边成坡鸭。递稀这种沿沟叹顶的边坡连，贤渗在坡度不亡大的斜坡采段的斜坡勒上以拦截饰地表径流堆形成的天访然河道鄙，支川允许径流嘉外溢，从杏而防止了筹水土流失毯。爪施工技术对决定如何泄兴建大遇桥兄,姓主要取决础于当地的设条件押。淋弟这些措施登包括材料殿成馅本烧,票现有设备绣，允许施才工的时间虑和环境的剪限制浸。钞峰因为所有毯这些条件啊在不同的球地点和时作间对于某业一特定的留结构会发帅生变化裙，棵过要尽量找颂到最好的毒施工技术捐。增量发霞射或推出毁法。寸在这施工殖方法是在迎桥面预应青力后张预隙制完成或超钢箱梁已恰经架设完俭毕之前推傍过跨度与振液压缸或催绞盘统。夜胀虽然临时既脚手架已概经弥合更胞大的距离叨安装的缺率陷，但通吩常跨越限诉于本50~松6案0歼米，以避论免悬臂过幼度弯曲逗。凝恶通常的方满法是工期日时间不应抄过长，多蓝跨桥梁的复架设应选在挖300狐~60北0疫米以内，谅但和已经贼建成的较区长的桥梁巩相比要短龟得多室。卸炊不幸的是锅，顾曾这种建设贴模式只能垮适用在双隆向水平和包垂直线性促梁序板假,啦或者有固赚定半径的沟弧型构件进。穴隔凡涉及一萍个小的级伏别汉(4%稠~5%雄)昌柱的构件，或应安装刹捉车系统以刘防止梁板川溜走失控底和承受沉捕重的支撑倾作用肤。撕皇大桥建设怖要求仔细微勘察，确求保具有连典续和精确短的桥面挠购度恨。油旗一架轻型额铝或钢梁冠板上应提以供专家指锯导虫。舟