2015年8月1日雅思阅读考情回顾

雅思阅读机经一、考试时间：201581日（周六）间。第一篇DustandAmerican，与地理环境类有关，集同类话题可参考剑五第四套第一篇TheImpactofWildernessTourism和剑六第一套第三篇ClimateChangeandtheInuit；第二篇FollowYourNose与人类嗅觉有关，剑八第二套第三篇TheMeaningandPowerofSmell与本文相似度极高；第三篇Whatismeaning?探寻语言意义的文章，剑九第三套第一篇Attitudestolanguage可作为参考。Passage1:DustandAmerican，介绍西南部的沙尘Passage2:FollowYourNose，人类嗅觉的研究Passage3:Whatismeaning?客观的物体与的理解题型分布与1.Thedusthadshotupdramaticallysincethesecondhalfof192.TheAzteccivilizationdisappearedduetothedustinthe3.Beforepeoplebringingcastlessouthwesthasalotofbasinsingreat4.BasinsnumberdecreasedsinceEuropeansettlersfoundthemareeasybe not5.Railwaybuildingusedmoremoneythan not6.hand workhardtoprotectthelandthey 7.Untiltodaythelandbelongs still 1930slawLimit8cattleTodayBFresearchwherethedustcomesfromysiscomponentsand9sizeFromsouthwestBNsoilcannotbedestroyedbyhigh10windSoilcanbedestroyedbycattlehooksyzing11lakesedimentsDiscover12nutrientsDustcannotbeblamedforgradualdisappearanceof.Snowand13Dustconsistsofparticlesintheatmospherethatcomefromvarioussourcessuchassoil,dustliftedbyweather(anaeolianprocess),volcaniceruptions,andpollution.Dustinhomes,offices,andotherhumanenvironmentscontainssmallamountsofntpollen,humanandanimalhairs,textilefibers,paperfibers,mineralsfromoutdoorsoil,humanskincells,burntmeteoriteparticles,andmanyothermaterialswhichmaybefoundinthelocalenvironment.Atmosphericorwind-bornedust,alsoknownasaeoliandust,comesfromaridanddryregionswherehighvelocitywindsareabletoremovemostlysilt-sizedmaterial,deflatingsusceptiblesurfaces.Thisincludesareaswheregrazing,ploughing,vehicleuse,andotherhumanactivitieshavefurtherdestabilizedtheland,thoughnotallsourceareashavebeenlargelyaffectedbyanthropogenicimpacts.One-thirdofthegloballandareaiscoveredbydust-producingsurfaces,madeupofhyper-aridregionsliketheSaharawhichcovers0.9billionhectares,anddrylandswhich5.2billionDustintheatmosphereisproducedbysaltationandsandblastingofsand-sizedgrains,anditistransportedthroughthetroposphere.Thisairbornedustisconsideredanaerosolandonceintheatmosphere,itcanproducestronglocalradiativeforcing.SaharandustinparticularcanbetransportedanddepositedasfarastheCaribbeanandAmazonia,andmayaffectairtemperatures,causeoceancooling,andalterrainfallamounts.Coaldustisresponsibleforthelungdiseaseknownaspoconiosis,includingblacklungdiseasethatoccursamongcoalminers.Thedangerofcoaldustresultedinenvironmentallegislationregulatingworkceairqualityinsomejurisdictions.Inaddition,ifenoughcoaldustisdispersedwithintheairinagivenarea,itcancreateanexplosionhazardundercertaincircumstances.That"EatMyDust"bumperstickeronthecarinfrontofyoumaybeclosertothetruththanyourealized.ResearchbyscientistsattheCaliforniaInstituteofTechnologyshowsthatroaddustkickedupbypassingtrafficcanbeasourceofairborneallergens.ThisfindingwillappearintheDec.1issueofthepeer-reviewedjournalEnvironmentalScience&Technology,publishedbytheAmericanChemicalSociety,theworld'slargestscientificsociety.ThearticlewasinitiallypublishedOct.26onthejournal'swebsite."Allergensfromatleasttwentydifferentsourcematerialswerefoundinpavedroaddust,"accordingtothestudy'sleadauthors,AnnMiguel,Ph.D.,andGlenCass,Ph.D.,oftheEnvironmentalEngineeringScienceDepartmentatCalTechinPasadena.Theallergensincludepollen,animaldanderandmolds.Theresultsofthestudy"clearlydemonstratethatpavedroaddustandairborneambientparticulatemattercontainbiologicmaterialsknowntobecapableofcausingorexacerbatingallergenicdiseaseinhumans,"accordingtothearticle.Astrafficmovesalongroads,itstirsupdustfromthepavementandresuspendsitintheair-thus ingasourceofallergenexposureforpeople.Residentialandruralareaswithroadsidevegetationtendtobemoreaffectedthanindustrialanddowntownareas."Thestudyshowsthatresuspendedpavedroaddustcontributes5-percentoftheairborneallergenicactivityintworesidentialareasofLosAngeles,butonlyabout0.5percentinadowntownindustriallocationwithlittlevegetation,"accordingtoCass.Althoughepidemiologicalstudieshaveshownarelationshipbetweenvehiculartrafficandrespiratoryproblems,particularlyinchildren,"theroleofvehiculartrafficinincreasingmoldandpollenconcentrationsintheatmospherehasnotbeenstudiedpreviously,"saysCass."Inhalationofparticulateairpollutioncontainingpavedroaddustcouldexin,inpart,someofthehealtheffectsseenwithambientmatterexposure,"thearticle题型分布与题型分布与14 ing15Coriginal16Dpainful17Erelievethe18Ggreateffectwhencombinemorethanmore192419bsmellcanbeinfluencedbypicturesor20asmellcannotbringsharper21dcombineoftwoorthree22bsmellcannotbeisolatedfrom23asmellisinthesamesectionofmemoryinthe2425-26气味疗法的现状是itishelpfultothosewhobelieveAnodororodourorfragranceiscausedbyoneormorevolatilizedchemicalcompounds,generallyataverylowconcentration,thathumansorotheranimalsperceivebythesenseofolfaction.Odorsarealsocommonlycalledscents,whichcanrefertobothpleasantandunpleasantodors.Thetermsfragranceandaromaareusedprimarilybythefoodandcosmeticindustrytodescribeapleasantodor,andaresometimesusedtorefertoperfumes.Incontrast,malodor,stench,reek,andstinkareusedspecificallytodescribeunpleasantodor.Thetermsmell(initsnounform)isusedforbothpleasantandunpleasantodors.IntheUnitedKingdom,odourreferstoscentsingeneral.IntheUnitedStatesandformanynon-nativeEnglishspeakersaroundtheworld,odorgenerallyhasanegativeconnotation,asasynonymforstink;ontheotherhand,scentoraromaareusedbythosepeopletoindicate"pleasantThesenseofsmellgivesrisetotheperceptionofodors,mediatedbytheolfactorynerve.Theolfactoryreceptor(OR)cellsareneuronspresentintheolfactoryepithelium,asmallpatchoftissueinbackofthenasal.Therearemillionsofolfactoryreceptorneuronsthatactassensorysignalingcells.Eachneuronhasciliaindirectcontactwithair.Theolfactorynerveisconsideredthesmellmediator,theaxonconnectsthebraintotheexternalair.Odorousmoleculesactasachemicalstimulus.Moleculesbindtoreceptorproteinsextendedfromcilia,initiatinganelectricsignal.Theprimarysequencesofthousandsofolfactoryreceptorsareknownfromthegenomesofmorethanadozenorganisms:theyareseven-helixtransmembraneproteins,butthereare(asofJuly2011)noknownstructuresofanyOR.ThereisahighlyconservedsequenceinroughlythreequartersofallORsthatisatripodalmetalionbindingsite,andSuslickhasproposedthattheORsareinfactmetalloproteins(mostlikelywithzinc,copperandpossiblymanganeseions)thatserveasaLewisAcidsiteforbindingofmanyodorantmolecules.Crabtree,in1978,hadpreviouslysuggestedthatCu(I)is"themostlikelycandidateforametallo-receptorsiteinforstrong-smellingvolatileswhicharealsogoodmetal-ligands,suchasthiols.Zhuang,MatsunamiandBlock,in2012,confirmedtheCrabtree/SuslickproposalforthespecificcaseofamouseOR,MOR244-3,showingthatcopperisessentialfordetectionofcertainthiolsandothersulfur-containingcompounds.Thus,byusingachemicalthatbindstocopperinthemousenose,sothatcopperwasn’tavailabletothereceptors,theauthorsshowedthatthemicecouldn'tdetectthethiols.However,theseauthorsalsofoundthatMOR244-3lacksthespecificmetalionbindingsitesuggestedbySuslick,insteadshowingadifferentmotifinthe Whenthesignalreachesathreshold,theneuronfires,sendingasignaltravelingalongtheaxontotheolfactorybulb,partofthelimbicsystemofthebrain.Interpretationofthesmellbegins,relatingthesmelltopastexperiencesandinrelationtothesubstance(s)emitted.Theolfactorybulbactsasarelaystationconnectingthenosetotheolfactorycortexinthebrain.Olfactoryinformationisfurtherprocessedandprojectedthroughapathwaytothecentralnervoussystem(CNS),whichcontrolsemotionsandbehavioraswellasbasicthoughtprocesses.Odorsensationusuallydependsontheconcentration(numberofmolecules)availabletotheolfactoryreceptors.Asingleodorantstimulustypeistypicallyrecognizedbymultiplereceptors,anddifferentodorantsarerecognizedbycombinationsofreceptors,thepatternsofneuronsignalsheltoidentifythesmell.Theolfactorysystemdoesnotinterpretasinglecompound,butinsteadthewholeodorousmix,notnecessarilycorrespondingtoconcentrationorintensityofanysingleconstituent.Thewidestrangeofodorsconsistsoforganiccompounds,althoughsomesimplecompoundsnotcontainingcarbon,suchashydrogensulfideandammonia,arealsoodorants.Theperceptionofanodoreffectisatwo-stepprocess.First,thereisthephysiologicalpart;thedetectionofstimulibyreceptorsinthenose.Thestimuliareprocessedbytheregionofthehumanbrainwhichisresponsibleforolfaction.Becauseofthis,anobjectiveandyticalmeasureofodorisimpossible.Whileodorfeelingsareveryalperceptions,individualreactionsarerelatedtogender,age,ofhealth, alCommonodorsthatpeopleareusedto,suchastheirownbodyodor,arelessnoticeabletoindividualsthanexternalor monodors.Thisisduetohabituation;aftercontinuousodorexposure,thesenseofsmellfatiguesquickly,butrecoversrapidlyafterthestimulusisremoved.Odorscanchangeduetoenvironmentalconditions,forexampleodorstendtobemoredistinguishableincooldryair.Habituationaffectstheabilitytodistinguishodorsaftercontinuousexposure.Thesensitivityandabilitytodiscriminateodorsdiminisheswithexposure,andthebraintendstoignorecontinuousstimulusandfocusondifferencesandchangesinaparticularsensation.Whenodorantsaremixed,onthestrengthoftheodorantsinthemixturewhichcanchangeperceptionandprocessingofanodor.Thisprocesshelpsclassifysimilarodorsaswellasadjustsensitivitytodifferencesincomplexstimuli.Formostuntrainedpeople,theprocessofsmellinggiveslittleinformationconcerningthespecificingredientsofanodor.Theirsmellperceptionprimarilyoffersinformationrelatedtotheemotionalimpact.[citationneeded]Experiencedpeople,however,suchasflavoristsandperfumers,canpickoutindividualchemicalsincomplexmixesthroughsmellalone.Odorperceptionisaprimalsense.Thesenseofsmellenablespleasure,cansubconsciouslywarnofdanger,helplocatemates,findfood,ordetectpredators.Humanshaveasurprisinglygoodsenseofsmell(eventhoughtheyonlyhave350functionalolfactoryreceptorgenescomparedtothe1,300foundinmice)correlatedtoanevolutionarydeclineinsenseofsmell.Human'sremarkablesenseofsmellisjustasgoodasmanyanimals,andcandistinguishadiversityofodors-approximay10,000scents.Bushdidetal.reported,however,thathumanscandistinguishaboutonetrillionodors.Thisisbecauseoftheretronasalrouteinhumanstoincreasesensation.[furtherexnationneeded]However,animalssuchasshowagreatershowagreatersensitivitytoodorsthanhumansespeciallyinstudiesusingshort-chainedcompounds.Highercognitivebrainmechanismsandmoreolfactorybrainregionsenablehumanstodiscriminateodorsbetterother lsdespitefewerolfactoryreceptor题型分布与27-3027第一段了什么?Conventionalteachingand28secondparagraphmeans?Dictionarycannotgiveanexactly29Louiswordsmeans?Aquestionableapproach.Cannotgiveout30what nelmanagermeans?Peopledonotsharethe3132not333435-4035comicstripartof36dictionarycannotgiveexact37BERMANfocusonusageof38flagsShared39astorycannotbeunderstoodis40bill.SocialThesensethatsentientcreatureshavethatthevariousobjectsofouruniversearelinkediscommonlyreferredtoasa 'ssenseof"meaning".Thisisthesenseofmeaningatworkwhenaskingawhentheyleaveatheater,"Whatdidthatmoviemeantoyou?"Intheword"meaning"cansometimesbeusedtodescribetheinterpretationsthatpeoplehaveoftheworld.Example:"Chunksarepiecesofinformationlinkedandboundbymeaning.(Rememberingdetailsvs.gettinganoverallmeaning)linksindividualmemorytracestogether,tocreateconceptualchunks."(Dr.BarbaraOakley,AMindforNumbers,p.55).Thefieldofsemanticsisoftenunderstoodasabranchoflinguistics,butthisisnotstrictlytrue.[citationneeded]Basicornon-idealizedmeaningasatypeofsemanticsisabranchofpsychologyandethicsandreflectstheoriginaluseoftheterm"meaning"asunderstoodearlyinthe20thcenturybyLadyWelbyafterherdaughterhadtranslatedtheterm"semantics"fromFrench.Ontheotherhand,meaning,insofarasitwaslaterobjectifiedbynotconsideringparticularsituationsandtherealintentionsofspeakersandwriters,examinesthewaysinwhichwords,phrases,andsentencescanseemtohavemeaning.Objectifiedsemanticsiscontrastedwithcommunication-focusedsemanticswhereunderstandingtheintentandassumptionsofparticularspeakersandwritersisprimaryasintheideathatpeoplemeanandnotwords,sentencesorpropositions.Anunderlyingdifferenceisthatwherecausesareidentifiedwithrelationsorlawsthenitisnormaltoobjectifymeaningandconsideritabranchoflinguistics,whileifcausesareidentifiedwithparticularagents,objects,orsasiftocausemeanstoinfluenceasmosthistoriansandpracticalpeopleassume,thenrealornon-objectifiedmeaningisprimaryandwearedealingwithintentorpurposeasanaspectofhumanpsychology,especiallysincehumanintentcanbeandoftenisindependentoflanguageandlinguistics.Weareallfamiliarwithhowgoodorbadreputationcanencourageordiscourageusfromreadingorstudyingaboutcertainpeople,positions,orphilosophiesevenbeforewehavestudiedthem.Thisisnormallycalledpre-judgmentorprejudice.Todeterminewhetherareputationisdeservedwenormallyhavetocarryo