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口译中的认知规律第1页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三TheFunctionalSectionsoftheBrain第2页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三第3页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三第4页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三第5页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三人脑的三重记忆系统现代认知神经科学认为,人脑中存在三个平行的记忆处理系统,具体包括以海马为核心的陈述性记忆系统、以纹状体和小脑为核心的程序(习惯)性记忆系统以及以杏仁核为核心的情绪性记忆系统。这个三个记忆系统都开始于大脑皮层的广泛区域,从这些大脑皮层中获取相关信息,并将加工过的信息反馈到大脑皮层,过程是互逆的。第6页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三(HowardEichenbaum,2008:208)大脑皮层海马旁回区纹状体小脑海马脑干和脊髓运动输出下丘脑自动化和荷尔蒙输出杏仁核陈述性记忆程序性记忆情绪性记忆第7页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三1.1陈述性记忆系统陈述性记忆系统也称为海马记忆系统,其主要包括三个重要组成部分,即大脑皮层,旁海马区以及海马。它包含两个双向联结:即大脑皮层和旁海马区之间的双向联结,以及旁海马区和海马之间的双向联结。旁海马区从新皮层联合区接受相关信息,并对这些项目进行编码,同时可对这些项目进行保持至少几分钟时间的存储。这种中时存储为短暂、短时记忆和长时记忆之间提供中继作用。第8页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三海马接收到来自旁海马区的表征信息,比较并关联此表征信息到其它记忆表征中,并根据此项目与涉及此项目的任何已经存在于记忆组织中的结构之间的关系,修正或创建整个记忆组织。(Eichenbaum,2008:226)其活动涉及行为事件和事件发生地点的高度特异联合,涉及情景记忆的信息序列,以及情景间共同信息的提取。简而言之,旁海马区对信息进行编码,并为海马提供一个短暂的缓冲信息存储;海马负责对些编码过的信息表征进行关联,从而调整或创建涉及该表征信息的整个记忆网络。第9页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三而此类涉及行为事件和事件发生地,涉及情景记忆信息序列以及情景间共同关系的信息,属于陈述性记忆。陈述性记忆是指人对事实资料的记忆,具体包括情景记忆和语义记忆。陈述性记忆有明显的外显性特征,对此类记忆所存储的信息,人们能够有意识地进行回忆,通过口头进行表达,或者通过其它外显方式进行表现。此类记忆实质是海马系统构建的一张由多重双向关联组成的表征关联网络。第10页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三1.2程序(习惯)性记忆系统程序(习惯)性记忆系统包括两个子系统,即以纹状体为核心构件的纹状体习惯子系统和以小脑为核心构件的小脑子系统。程序(习惯)性记忆系统,主要支持人们在无意识状态的习得,其又可以分为两大类:其一包括习惯和技能的习得,是一种容纳大量刻板化的、无意识的行为指令表的能力;其二涉及具体感觉——运动适应,换言之,是对条件反射的习得。(Eichenbaum,2008:245)第11页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三1.2.1纹状体习惯子系统纹状体习惯子系统由大脑皮层、纹状体-脑干和丘脑组成。具体图示如下:(Eichenbaum2008:246)大脑皮层纹状体丘脑脑干前运动和运动皮层前额联合皮层第12页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三在纹状体习惯子系统中,纹状体接受来自整个大脑皮层的信息输入,这些所输入的信息,在激活条件下,可以发生改变。这些信息输入到纹状体内,纹状体能够对其进行分类编码,并将其组成能够联结到躯体感觉表征和运动表征的模块。纹状体将有关信息表征投射到丘脑,丘脑又将信息表征投射返回到前运动皮层、运动皮层以及前额联合皮质,在这个回路中,有一微量信息表征被传递到了脑干运动核。第13页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三这种联结模式表明纹状体并没有直接参与运动细节的控制,但其间接与前运动皮质和前额皮质的联结表明,皮层纹状体坏路有助于各个内高级的运动功能,包括复杂运动序列的计划和执行。研究表明,纹状体子系统在习惯学习中的作用至关重要,尤其是在对特殊刺激进行序列反应学习的作业中。其习惯学习包括获得刻板的、无意识的行为指令表。(Eichenbaum2008)第14页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三1.2.2小脑子系统小脑子系统包括部分大脑皮层(主要是前运动皮层和运动皮层)、小脑、丘脑、脊髓和脑干运动核。具体图示如下:(Eichenbaum2008:246)大脑皮层小脑丘脑前运动皮层和运动皮层脊髓脑干运动核第15页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三有证据表明,小脑大范围参与到了程序学习过程中,延伸到了经典反射,并进一步进入了动作适应的其他形式。但对小脑子系统的研究,还处于起始阶段,对其认识还比较肤浅。“小脑对于多种反射适应非常关键,这些反射适应回在条件反射情景中以简单直接的形式释放,并可能成为更加复杂的序列作业的基本成分。”(Eichenbaum2008:266)第16页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三1.3情绪记忆系统情绪记忆系统经由杏仁核通路联系起来,其主要包括大脑皮层、丘脑、杏仁核和下丘脑。(Eichenbaum2008:273)大脑皮层丘脑杏仁核下丘脑自动化输出和荷尔蒙输出第17页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三在情绪记忆系统中,杏仁核附着在海马的末端,呈杏仁状,是边缘系统的一部分。将信息传入下丘脑,可以激活交感神经;传入丘脑网状核,可以强化反射;传入外侧被盖核等一系列器官,可以促其产生多巴胺、去甲肾上腺素和肾上腺素。多巴胺负责大脑的情欲,感觉,传递兴奋及开心的信息。去甲肾上腺素能显著地增强心肌收缩力,使心率增快,心输出量增多;与此类似,肾上腺素能使心肌收缩力加强、兴奋性增高,传导加速,心输出量增多。由此可见,杏仁核系统,是调控情绪的关键系统。第18页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三LeDoux(1996)研究证实,外侧杏仁核的信息输入表现出与可塑性有关的学习,这包括突触效力改变的证据,在神经元放电模式水平下,恐惧条件反射选择性地提高了外侧杏仁核神经元的潜伏期较短的听觉反应,而且,一些在训练之前对音调不敏感的细胞在条件作用后表现出较短潜伏期的反应。由此可见,在恐惧条件下,神经元细胞之间的突触联结力度加强,而且神经元细胞的对外界刺激的反应能力也随着增强。第19页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三刺激清醒动物的杏仁核,动物出现“停顿反应”,显得“高度注意”,表现迷惑、焦虑、恐惧、退缩反应或发怒、攻击反应。刺激杏仁首端引起逃避和恐惧,刺激杏仁尾端引起防御和攻击反应。诱发惧—怒反应时伴瞳孔扩大、竖毛、嗥叫等情绪表现。具有情绪意义的刺激会引起杏仁核电活动的强烈反应,并形成长期的痕迹储存于脑中。第20页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三CognitionandInterpretationInterpretationisakindofhighlycomplicatedbilingualactivitythatisrestrictedbytime.Afterinceptingthesourcelanguageinformation,interpretersneedimmediatelyreformulateitinthetargetlanguage.Thisveryunnaturalstate,inwhichlisteningandspeakingalmosthappenatthesametime,bringsabouttremendouspsychologicalpressurealinterpreters.Ininterpreting,interpretersgothroughaseriesofprocessessuchastheinception,comprehensionandconversionofthesourcelanguage,andthereformulationinthetargetlanguage第21页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三However,theseprocessescanneitherbeseennorbetouched;furthermore,purelinguisticmodelcannotentirelyexplainmanylinksoftheseprocessesandproblemsarisinginthem.Besides,ininterpretingpractice,whatkindoftacticsshouldinterpreterstakewhentheyencounterallkindsofproblems?Centereduponthesetwoissues,thischapterappliescognitivepsychologyandpsycholinguisticstomakinganabstractanalysisoninterpreters'linguisticinformationprocessing,andthusrevealstheinnerobjectivelawintheinterpretingcognitivestructure.第22页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三Cognition

Inscience,cognitionisagroupofmentalprocessesthatincludesattention,memory,producingandunderstandinglanguage,learning,reasoning,problemsolving,anddecisionmaking.Variousdisciplines,suchaspsychology,philosophy,linguistics,andcomputerscienceallstudycognition.However,theterm'susagevariesacrossdisciplines;forexample,inpsychologyandcognitivescience,"cognition"usuallyreferstoaninformationprocessingviewofanindividual'spsychologicalfunctions.第23页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三Itisalsousedinabranchofsocialpsychologycalledsocialcognitiontoexplainattitudes,attribution,andgroupsdynamics.Incognitivepsychologyandcognitiveengineering,cognitionistypicallyassumedtobeinformationprocessinginaparticipant’soroperator’smindorbrain.第24页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三Inthissense,cognitivepsychologyanalysesallhumancognitiveprocessesthatincludeperception,image,attention,memory,concept,reasoning,problemsolvingandspeech.Interpretationistheinter-lingualexchangebetweentwolanguages,soitnecessarilyinvolvesinterpreters'variouspsychologicalprocessesasmentionedabove.第25页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三PerceptionPerceptioncomesintobeingwhenstimulusactsonthesenseorgansdirectly.Inaccordancewiththeviewofcognitivepsychology,perceptioncanmakestimulatinginformationorsensoryinformationbecomeameaningfulobject,andthengraspthemeaningofstimuluswiththehelpandparticipationofthestoredknowledgeandexperience.Hence,cognitivepsychologyscientistsholdthebeliefthathumanknowledgeandexperienceareindispensabletoperception,andtheyreactontheperceptionprocessprimarilyintheformofhypothesis,anticipationorschema.第26页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三Theinterpretingprocessalsoparallelstheaboveperceptionprocess.TaketheEnglishword"text"forexample.First,theinterpreterhearstheword.Inotherwords,he/sheinceptsthesensorystimulusandinputstheinformation.Next,basedontheexistedrepositoryandexperience,theinterpreterformswhathypothesisthecurrentstimulatinginformation"text"is.Thatistosay,theinterpreteractivatescorrelativeknowledgeandexperienceunitsinhis/hermemory,andthenformsallkindsofpossiblehypothesesandanticipationoftheobject"text"inChinese:原文,本文,正文,文本,课本,教科书,版本,题目,经文,铅字,andsoon.Asfortheestimationoftherighthypothesisoranticipation,itisnecessaryfortheinterpretertosearchinformationlikethecontext,andprovethehypothesesandanticipationuntiloneoftheabovehypothesesoranticipationisproved,andaccordinglymakeacorrectinterpretationoftheword"text".Tillthismoment,theinterpreterfinishestheinitialcognitiveprocessininterpreting.第27页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三ImageAstoimage(orcalledpresentation),cognitivepsychologyscientistsprimarilyworkovermemoryimageandimaginationimagecausedbyhumanvision.Theybelievethatimageresemblesperception.However,perceptionariseswhenpracticalstimulusdirectlyactsonsenseorgansanditreliesoncurrentinformationinput,whileimagedependsontheinformationstoredinhumanmemoryandcorrespondingprocessingcourseinsteadofdirectcurrentstimulationandinformationinput.Thereby,imagecouldberegardedastheobjectthatcurrentlydoesnotdirectlyemergeorthepsychologicalrepresentationofevents.第28页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三Accordingtotheexperimentalresultsofpsychologicalcircumrotationandpsychologicalscanincognitivepsychology,imagebearsastrongcharacteristicofspace-timecontinuum(orcalledspace-timeinformation).Suchspace-timeinformationcarriedbyimageplaysasignificantroleinpromotingperceptionprocessing,learningandmemorizationandthinkingactivities.第29页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三Forinstance,theEnglishword"capsule"shouldbetranslatedinto“胶囊”inmedicine,“小盖皿”inchemistry,and“太空舱”incosmography.Itisthespace-timeinformationoftheword"capsule"indifferentspecialtiesandtradesthatbringsdifferentimagestotheword"capsule",andthentheseimageshelpinterpreterstointerpretsuccessfullyandbeabletogivecorrectChinesetermsofdifferentspecialties.Therefore,itisobviousthatimageisofgreatimportancetoinformationprocessingininterpretation.第30页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三ConceptFormationConceptisthereflectionoftheessenceofthingsandthetokenofgeneralizationofkindredthings.Atpresent,cognitivepsychologyscientistsmostlygodeeplyintotheformationofconcept.Hereadetaileddiscussionprobesintothefunctionofconceptformationintheinterpretingprocess.第31页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三Cognitivepsychologyscientiststhinkthatintheconceptformationcourse,humanneedstoutilizeinformationalreadygainedandstoredtoadvancesomepossiblehypothesesontheirowninitiative.Thesehypothesesconstituteahypothesisrepository.Hypothesiscanberegardedastheunitofcognitionandistheinternalrepresentationwhichaccountsforthehumanactionofconceptformation.Whenstimulusworksonhumansenseorgans,peoplewillfirsttakeoutoneorseveralhypothesestoreacttoitandkeepprovingthehypothesisadopted.Ifthereactioniscorrect,thehypothesiswillbeemployedcontinuously,otherwiseitwillbelaidbacktothehypothesisrepositoryandreplacedbyotherhypothesesuntilcertainrighthypothesisformscertainconcept.Thatisthehypothesistestingtheoryofconceptformationincognitivepsychology.第32页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三ThehypothesistestingtheorycanbeappliedinanalyzingthecruxofinterpretingandthebasicconvertingrelationshipbetweentheSourceLanguage(SL)andtheTargetLanguage(TL)ininterpretingtheories.Forexample,thebasicconvertingrelationshipbetweenSLandTLshouldfirstbe:SL一concept--TL.Thisillustratesthatwheninterpreting,interpretersoughttograspaboveallthemostfundamentalconceptualmeaningintheSourceLanguage,whichmustbefaithfullyreproducedintheTargetLanguage,althoughthewaysofreproductionaremultiply.第33页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三TheComprehensionProcessofInterpretingThementalprocessofhumancomprehensionmainlyundergoesthreestages:listeningandanalysisofSL,preliminaryprocessingofSLandtheintegrationofSLdiscourseinformation.Asforthenatureofcomprehension,itistheprocessofretrieving"storedinformation”(languageknowledgeandbackgroundknowledge)fromthelong-termmemoryandrelatingittotheencountereddiscourse.Inotherwords,theinterpreterdecodesthemessageandgetsthemeaningthatisstoredinhis/hermemoryforthefinalgoalofinterpreting-encodingthesamemessageinTL.Theobjectiveofcomprehensionistounderstandthemeaningofutteranceratherthanthemeaningoflanguageitself.Themeaningofanutteranceistheresultoftheintegrationofthemeaningofwordswiththebackgroundknowledgeofthelistener.第34页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三Owingtotherequirementsoftheinterpretingwork,interpreters'comprehensionprocessreflectscertainpsychologicaleffortsthatinterpretersdirecttheirattentiontothewholenessofthesourcelanguageandcarryonthinkingprocessingofthecontent,withthepurposeofstoringthesourcelanguagesoastointerpret.第35页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三Commonlistenersusuallymerelypayattentiontotheinformationthatcanarousetheirinterestoronlythinkdeeplyaboutthereactiontheyneedtomakeandthecontentiontheyconcern,andaccordinglyignoreotherinformationthatmaymeannothingtothemyetagreatdealtootherlisteners.Nevertheless,interpreters'comprehensionisfardifferentfromthat.Itis,infact,aresultofacertainprofessionalizationprocessininterpretingwork,andoneoftheexternalmanifestationsoftheso-calledprofessionalizationistokeepinstoragetheinformationaboutthecontentofthesourcelanguagewithoutanyomission.第36页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三listeningandanalysisphaseAccordingtophoneticsandpsycholinguistics,allhumancomprehensionofvocallanguagesstartsfromtheacousticalanalysisoflanguages.Thatistheprocessingstageofspeechsoundsorcalledlisteningandanalysisphase.Unlikethesoundwehearduringthelisteningclass,thosespeechsoundsofthesourcelanguageinceptedbyinterpretersinrealworkingsituationsaretoagreatextentinfluencedbySLannouncingcharacteristicssuchassurroundingnoises,speedofutterance,andtheenunciationandaccentofthesource-languagespeaker.Nevertheless,itseemsthatontheinterpretingsceneinterpreterscantakeadvantageofcertaintacticstocopewiththedifficultiesandthusminimizethenegativeeffects.第37页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三Professionalinterpretersseemtohaveespeciallykeenearsandappeartobeabletofocushis/herattentiononthespeechsoundsregardlessofotherthings.Inviewoftheabove-mentionedfacts,itcanbeinferredthatinterpreters'reactiontothephoneticgroupsisnotasimpleprocessoftheacousticalsymbolanalysisofspeechsounds,butacomplicatedoneinwhichvariousfactorsareinvolvedandanalysiscoexistswithsynthesis.第38页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三Interpretersneedtomakeeffortstocomprehendandstorethecontentofthesourcelanguage,whosepurposeistorealizeprofessionalretellinginthetargetlanguage.thedirectingof"attention”(aconceptinpsychology)playsasignificantroleinthelisteningandanalysisstageofinterpretingcomprehensionprocess.第39页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三ParalinguisticinformationonInterpreters’ListeningandAnalysisThelisteningandanalysiscourseofinterpretersiscomplicatedandfullofchanges.Besidesattention,therearealsoseveralotheringredientsinvolvedininterpreters'listeningandanalysisprocess.Amongthose,paralinguisticinformationplaysaprominentpartinit,andundercertainspotcircumstancesismostlikelytobecomecrucial.Theconceptofparalinguisticinformationreferstothetraitofautomaticinformationsupplementofhumanmind,andsuchlinguisticconcomitantinformationastone,facialexpressions,gestures,spatialdistanceandbodycarriage.Wheninterpretersdonotacquireveryclearacousticalfeaturesofspeechsounds,byvirtueofparalinguisticfactors,theywillbeabletoprofessionallymakeupforthoseacousticalfeaturesbymeansofautomaticorsemiautomaticlisteningandanalysisandcomprehension第40页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三amongparalinguisticinformationfactors,tonefunctionsgreatly.Itisakindofinformationoflineardevelopmentthatarisestogetherwiththeexternalformoflanguages.Itsvariationssuchaspitchandlengthreflectstheinneremotionsofspeakerandthingslikethat.ToneisdifferentfromthetoneofChinesecharactersorotherlanguagecharacters.Thetoneoflanguagecharactersshowsthelinguisticpitchchangesinthephonematic(音位的)levelanddirectlyreflectsthelinguisticinformationofcertainclassificatorylanguagesinthelevelofphoneme,whichisdefinedbylinguistsasthetonethatcandistinguishmeaningsinthetonelanguages.第41页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三Extra-linguisticfactorsInadditiontoattentionandparalinguisticinformation,therearestillthreeotherfactorsthatareofimportancetothelisteningandanalysisofthesourcelanguage.Thoseinclude:I)thespeechsubjectandcontextofthesourcelanguage,2)thepersonalexperiences,languages,socialexperienceandcommonknowledgeorencyclopedicknowledgeofinterpreters,and3)theirprofessionalknowledge.第42页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三Speechsubject,contextandevencommunicationbackgroundplaypositiverolesintheprocessofcommunicationinspokenlanguage.Psychologistsandpsycholinguistshaveprovedthat,duringthecourseoforalexchanges,someextralinguisticfactorssuchassubjectandcontextcontributetopromptinghumanmindtocarryonreasoningandsomeotherintellectiveprocessingactivities,andredoundtothespeechcomprehension.第43页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三ThePreliminaryProcessingStageinComprehensionThepreliminaryprocessingstageofdiscourseintheprocessofcomprehensionreferstothecomprehensionofthediscoursethatconsistsofshortsentences,complexsentencesandsoon,andhascertaincompleteparagraphmeaning.Itisalsotheestablishmentcourseofthe“meaningunit”,whichincludestwoaspects:processingfrombottomtotopandprocessingfromtoptobottom.第44页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三thebottom-upprocessingInthecourseofthebottom-upprocessing,theprincipaltaskofinterpretersistosearchforthesemanticcontentofwordsandexpressionsinthesourcelanguage.Thisisaverycomplicatedautomatizationprocessofcranialnerveloop,whichisactuallytheautomaticdecodingandinterpretingprocessofsemanticcoding.第45页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三Itisjustinthisperiodthatinterpretershavethebehaviorofdiscardingmostlinguisticacousticsymbolsheardandanalyzed.Inotherwords,whileinterpretersareautomaticallysearchingthesemanticcontentofwordsandexpressions,theywillimmediately"forget"thelinguisticacousticsymbolsofthesourcelanguage(includingthosesymbolstowhichSLsyntaxorotherlinguisticformsadhere).Eveniffewacousticsymbolsarereserved,theymostlyrelatetothepointofSLinformationandkeywords-theso-calledinterpreting"focalpoint".第46页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三TheTop-downProcessingComparedwiththebottom-upprocessingthathasthenatureofanalysisandthepurposeofabsorption,theprocessingfromtoptobottomyethasthenatureofcomprehensivenessandthepurposeofarrangementandjudgment.ItattachesmuchimportancetomobilizinginformationsuchasSLsubject,contextandotherinformationof"cognitiverepository",soastoproducepsychologicalanticipationorhypothesisofcertainorientation,andaccordinglycompletetheinferenceofspeechinformation.第47页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三TheIntegrationofDiscourseInformationinComprehensionComparedwiththeabovestages,thisoneispracticallya“manipulatingprocessofinterpreters‘comprehensionontheunitarydiscourseleveloftheSLspeech.Itssignificanceliesinrepresentingthedominantmethodofinterpretingthinkingcomprehensionandembodyinginterpreters’transitioncoursefromtheorganizationandconstructionofthe”meaningunit“ofaparagraphtothecomprehensionoftheunitary(统一的)meaningofadiscourse.第48页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三认知负荷模式DanielGile'sBasicConceptsandModelsforInterpretingis`amonographdrawinguponinterdisciplinaryresearch(cognitivepsychologyandpsycholinguistics)todevelopinstructionalmaterial'forinterpretingandtranslation,and`providestheoreticalcontentstructuredinmodulesforuseinboththeinterpretationandtranslationclassrooms'.Gileputsforwardhis`ComprehensionEquation'whichhasgreatinfluenceininterpretingstudies:ComprehensionEquation:C=KL+ELK+AC->ComprehensionKL->KnowledgeofLanguageELK->Extra-linguisticKnowledge;A-Analysis第49页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三EffortModelforSimultaneousInterpreting:SI=L+M+S+CSI-SimultaneousInterpretingL-ListeningandAnalysisM-Short-termMemoryS一SpeechProductionC-Coordination第50页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三specificphases

ofconsecutiveinterpretationTherearetwospecificformulaedescribingeffortsrequiredinthetwo(CI):1)CI(listening)=L+M+N+CL-ListeningandanalysisM一Short-termmemoryN-Note-takingC一Coordination(2)CI(reformulation)=Rem+Read+PRem-RecallfrommemoryandnotesRead-ReadingnotesP-Production第51页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三Anderson'sACT

(AdaptiveControlofThought)model第52页,共57页,2023年,2月20日,星期三ACT*modeldistinguishesamongthreetypesofmemorystructures:declarative,proceduralandworkingmemory.Declarativememorytakestheformofasemanticnetlinkingpropositions,images,andsequencesbyassociations.Proceduralmemory(alsolong-term)representsinformationinthe

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