第二语言学习策略

第二语言学习策略第一页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日Anoverviewoflanguagelearningstrategies(LLS)forsecondandforeignlanguage(L2/FL)teachers.BackgroundofLLSandLLStraining,discussesathreestepapproachteachersmayfollowinusingLLSintheirclasses,andsummariseskeyreflectionsandquestionsforfutureresearchonthisaspectofL2/FLeducation.第二页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日Agradualbutsignificantshiftoverthelastfewdecadesresultinginlessemphasisonteachersandteachingandgreaterstressonlearnersandlearning.Thischangereflectedinlanguageeducationandappliedlinguistics:theNortheastConference(1990)entitled"ShiftingtheInstructionalFocustotheLearner"andannual"Learners'Conferences"heldinconjuctionwiththeTESLCanadaconventionsince1991,tokeyworkson"thelearner-centredcurriculum"(Nunan,1988,1995)and"learner-centrednessaslanguageeducation"(Tudor,1996).第三页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日LearningStrategiesearlydefinitionsreflecttherootsofLSincognitivescience,essentialassumptionsthathumanbeingsprocess

informationandthatlearninginvolvessuchinformationprocessing.WeinsteinandMayer(1986)definedlearningstrategies(LS)broadlyas"behavioursandthoughtsthatalearnerengagesinduringlearning"whichare"intendedtoinfluencethelearner'sencodingprocess"(p.315).第四页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日LaterMayer(1988)morespecificallydefinedLSas"behavioursofalearnerthatareintendedtoinfluencehowthelearnerprocessesinformation"(p.11).Clearly,LSareinvolvedinalllearning,regardlessofthecontentandcontext.第五页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日LSarethususedinlearningandteachingmath,science,history,languagesandothersubjects,bothinclassroomsettingsandmoreinformallearningenvironments.第六页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日LanguageLearningStrategiesDefinedWithinL2/FLeducation,anumberofdefinitionsofLLShavebeenusedbykeyfiguresinthefield.Earlyon,Tarone(1983)definedaLSas"anattempttodeveloplinguisticandsociolinguisticcompetenceinthetargetlanguage--toincoporatetheseintoone'sinterlanguagecompetence"(p.67).Rubin(1987)LS"arestrategieswhichcontributetothedevelopmentofthelanguagesystemwhichthelearnerconstructsandaffectlearningdirectly"(p.22).第七页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日O'MalleyandChamot(1990)definedLSas"thespecialthoughtsorbehavioursthatindividualsusetohelpthemcomprehend,learn,orretainnewinformation"(p.1).(Oxford,1990a),Oxford(1992/1993)providesspecificexamplesofLLSi.e.,"InlearningESL,Trang(1)watchesU.S.TVsoapoperas,(2)guessesthemeaningofnewexpressions(3)predictingwhatwillcomenext"第八页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日...languagelearningstrageties–specificactions,behaviours,steps,ortechniquesthatstudents(oftenintentionally)usetoimprovetheirprogressindevelopingL2skills.Thesestrategiescanfacilitatetheinternalization,

storage,retrieval,oruse

ofthenewlanguage.第九页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日Strategiesaretoolsfor(4)theself-directedinvolvementnecessaryfordevelopingcommunicativeability.(Oxford,1992/1993,p.18).Fromthesedefinitions,achangeovertimemaybenoted:fromtheearlyfocusontheproductofLSS(linguisticorsociolinguisticcompetence),toagreateremphasisontheprocesses

andthecharacteristicsofLLS.第十页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日LLSaredistinctfromlearningstyles,whichrefermorebroadlytoalearner's"natural,habitual,andpreferredway(s)ofabsorbing,processing,andretainingnewinformationandskills"(Reid,1995,p.viii),

thereisalsoobviousrelationshipbetweenlanguagelearningstyleandusualorpreferredlanguagelearningstrategies.第十一页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日WhataretheCharacteristicsofLLS?Althoughtheterminologyisnotalwaysuniform,withsomewritersusingtheterms"learnerstrategies"(Wendin&Rubin,1987),others"learningstrategies"(O'Malley&Chamot,1990;Chamot&O'Malley,1994),andstillothers"languagelearningstrategies"(Oxford,1990a,1996),第十二页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日thereareanumberofbasiccharacteristicsinthegenerallyacceptedviewofLLS.First,LLSarelearnergenerated;theyarestepstakenbylanguagelearners.Second,LLSenhancelanguagelearningandhelpdeveloplanguagecompetence,asreflectedinthelearner'sskillsinlistening,speaking,reading,orwritingtheL2orFL.Third,LLSmaybevisible(behaviours,steps,techniques,etc.)orunseen(thoughts,mentalprocesses).Fourth,LLSinvolveinformationandmemory(vocabularyknowledge,grammarrules,etc.).第十三页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日WhendiscussingLLS,Oxford(1990a)andotherssuchasWendenandRubin(1987)note(5)adesireforcontrolandautonomyoflearningCohen(1990)insiststhatonlyconscious

strategiesareLLS,andthattheremustbeachoiceinvolvedonthepartofthelearner.第十四页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日Transferofastrategyfromonelanguageorlanguageskill

toanother

isarelatedgoalofLLS,(Pearson(1988)andSkehan(1989)).第十五页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日Oxford’stwelvekeyfeatures.Inadditiontothecharacteristicsnotedabove,shestatesthatLLS:(6)allowlearnerstobecomemoreself-directed(7)expandtheroleoflanguageteachers(8)areproblem-oriented(9)involvemanyaspects,notjustthecognitive(10)canbetaught(11)areflexible(12)areinfluencedbyavarietyoffactors.(Oxford,1990a,p.9)第十六页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日WhyareLLSImportantforL2/FLLearningandTeaching?Within'communicative'approachestolanguageteachingakeygoalisforthelearnertodevelopcommunicativecompetenceinthetargetL2/FL,andLLScanhelpstudentsindoingso.第十七页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日Animportantdistinctionexists,however,betweencommunicationandlanguagelearningstrategies.Communicationstrategies

areusedbyspeakersintentionallyandconsciously

inordertocopewithdifficultiesincommunicatinginaL2/FL(Bialystok,1990).第十八页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日ThetermLLSisusedmoregenerallyforallstrategiesthatL2/FLlearnersuseinlearningthetargetlanguage,andcommunicationstrategiesarethereforejustonetypeofLLS.ForallL2teacherswhoaimtohelpdeveloptheirstudents'communicativecompetenceandlanguagelearning,then,anunderstandingofLLSiscrucial.AsOxford(1990a)putsit,LLS"...areespeciallyimportantforlanguagelearningbecausetheyaretoolsforactive,self-directedinvolvement,whichisessentialfordevelopingcommunicativecompetence"(p.1).第十九页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日Inadditiontodevelopingstudents'communicativecompetence,LLSareimportantbecauseresearchsuggeststhattrainingstudentstouseLLScanhelpthembecomebetterlanguagelearners.Earlyresearchon'goodlanguagelearners'byNaiman,Frohlich,Stern,andTodesco(1978,1996),Rubin(1975),andStern(1975)suggestedanumberofpositivestrategiesthatsuchstudentsemploy,rangingfromusinganactivetaskapproachinandmonitoringone'sL2/FLperformancetolisteningtotheradiointheL2/FLandspeakingwithnativespeakers.第二十页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日O'MalleyandChamot(1990)alsosuggeststhateffectiveL2/FLlearnersareawareoftheLLStheyuseandwhytheyusethem.Graham's(1997)workinFrenchfurtherindicatesthatL2/FLteacherscanhelpstudentsunderstandgoodLLSandshouldtrainthemtodevelopandusethem.第二十一页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日Skehan(1989)cautions"thereisalwaysthepossibilitythatthe'good'languagelearningstrategies...arealsousedbybadlanguagelearners,butotherreasonscausethemtobeunsuccessful"(p.76).VannandAbraham(1990)foundevidencethatboth'good'and'unsuccessful'languagelearnerscanbeactiveusersofsimilarLLS,thoughitisimportantthattheyalsodiscoveredthattheirunsuccessfullearners"apparently...lacked...whatareoftencalledmetacognitivestrategies...whichwouldenablethemtoassessthetaskandbringtobearthenecessarystrategiesforitscompletion"(p.192).第二十二页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日AnumberandrangeofLLSareimportantifL2/FLteachersaretoassiststudentsbothinlearningtheL2/FLandinbecominggoodlanguagelearners.第二十三页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日WhatKindsofLLSAreThere?Thereareliterallyhundredsofdifferent,yetofteninterrelated,LLS.OxfordhasdevelopedafairlydetailedlistofLLSinhertaxonomyFirst,Oxford(1990b)distinguishesbetweendirectLLS,"whichdirectlyinvolvethesubjectmatter",i.e.theL2orFL,andindirectLLS,which"donotdirectlyinvolvethesubjectmatteritself,butareessentialtolanguagelearningnonetheless"(p.71).第二十四页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日Second,eachofthesebroadkindsofLLSisfurtherdividedintoLLSgroups.OxfordoutlinesthreemaintypesofdirectLLS,forexample.Memorystrategies"aidinenteringinformationintolong-termmemoryandretrievinginformationwhenneededforcommunication".CognitiveLLS"areusedforformingandrevisinginternalmentalmodelsandreceivingandproducingmessagesinthetargetlanguage".Compensationstrategies"areneededtoovercomeanygapsinknowledgeofthelanguage“(Oxford,1990b,p.71).第二十五页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日Oxford(1990a,1990b)alsodescribesthreetypesofindirectLLS.Metacognitivestrageties"helplearnersexercise'executivecontrol'throughplanning,arranging,focusing,andevaluatingtheirownlearning".AffectiveLLS"enablelearnerstocontrolfeelings,motivations,andattitudesrelatedtolanguagelearning".Finally,socialstrategies"facilitateinteractionwithothers,ofteninadiscoursesituation"(Oxford,1990b,p.71).第二十六页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日ThesesixmaintypesofLLS(Oxford1990a,pp.18-21),arefurtherdividedinto19strategygroupsand62subsets.forexample,thesocialLLSthatOxfordlistsunderindirectstrategies.ThreetypesofsocialLLSarenotedinOxford(1990a):askingquestions,co-operatingwithothers,andempathisingwithothers(p.21).GeneralexamplesofLLSgivenineachofthesecategoriesareasfollows:Askingquestions AskingforclarificationorverificationAskingforcorrection Co-operatingwithothersCo-operatingwithpeers Co-operatingwithproficientusersofthenew languageEmpathisingwithothers DevelopingculturalunderstandingBecomingawareofothers'thoughtsandfeelings(Oxford,1990a,p.21)第二十七页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日Inaskingquestions,forexample,studentsmightasksomethingspecificlike"Doyoumean...?"or"Didyousaythat...?"inordertoclarifyorverifywhattheythinktheyhaveheardorunderstood.第二十八页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日WhatisimportanttonotehereisthewayLLSareinterconnected,bothdirectandindirect,andthesupporttheycanprovideonetotheother(seeOxford,1990a,pp.14-16).IntheaboveillustrationofsocialLLS,forexample,astudentmightaskthequestionsaboveofhisorherpeers,thereby'co-operatingwithothers',andinresponsetotheanswerheorshereceivesthestudentmightdevelopsomeaspectofL2/FLculturalunderstandingorbecomemoreawareofthefeelingsorthoughtsoffellowstudents,theteacher,orthoseintheL2/FLculture.第二十九页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日Whatislearnedfromthisexperiencemightthenbesupportedwhenthesamestudentusesadirect,cognitivestrategysuchas'practising'torepeatwhatheorshehaslearnedortointegratewhatwaslearnedintoanaturalconversationwithsomeoneinthetargetL2/FL.第三十页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日USINGLLSINTHECLASSROOMContextsandClassesforLLSTrainingLLSandLLStrainingmaybeintegratedintoavarietyofclassesforL2/FLstudents.Onetypeofcoursethatappearstobebecomingmorepopular,especiallyinintensiveEnglishprogrammes,isonefocusingonthelanguagelearningprocessitself.第三十一页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日Inthiscase,textssuchasEllisandSinclair's(1989)LearningtoLearnEnglish:ACourseinLearnerTrainingorRubinandThompson's(1994)HowtoBeaMoreSuccessfulLanguageLearnermightbeusedinordertohelpL2/FLlearnersunderstandthelanguagelearningprocess,thenatureoflanguageandcommunication,whatlanguagelearningresourcesareavailabletothem,andwhatspecificLLStheymightuseinordertoimprovetheirownvocabularyuse, grammarknowledge,andL2/FLskillsinreading,writing,listening,andspeaking.第三十二页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日ThreestepapproachtoimplementingLLStrainingintheclassroomStep1:StudyYourTeachingContextAtfirst,itiscrucialforteacherstostudytheirteachingcontext,payingspecialattentiontotheirstudents,theirmaterials,andtheirownteaching.itiscrucialtoknowsomethingaboutthelearners,theirinterests, motivations, learningstyles,etc.第三十三页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日Byobservingtheirbehaviourinclass,forexample,youwillbeabletoseewhatLLStheyalreadyappeartobeusing.Dotheyoftenaskforclarification,verification,orcorrection,?Dotheyco-operatewiththeirpeersorseemtohavemuchcontactoutsideofclasswithproficientL2/FLusers?第三十四页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日Beyondobservation,however,onecanprepareashortquestionnairethatstudentscanfillinatthebeginningofacourse,describingthemselvesandtheirlanguagelearning.第三十五页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日Sharkey(1994/1995),forinstance,asksstudentstocompletestatementssuchas"InthisclassIwantto/will/won't....","Myfavourite/leastfavouritekindsofclassactivitiesare...","IamstudyingEnglishbecause...",etc.(Sharkey,1994/1995,p.19).第三十六页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日Talkingtostudentsinformallybeforeorafterclass,ormoreformallyinterviewingselectstudentsaboutthesetopicscanalsoprovidealotofinformationaboutone'sstudents,theirgoals, motivations,andLLS, andtheirunderstandingofthe particularcoursebeingtaught.第三十七页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日Beyondthestudents,however,one'steachingmaterialsarealsoimportantinconsideringLLSandLLStraining.Textbooks,forexample,shouldbeanalysedtoseewhethertheyalreadyincludeLLSorLLStraining.ScarcellaandOxford's(1992)Tapestrytextbookseries,forexample,incorporates"learningstrategy"boxeswhichhighlightLLSandencouragestudentstousetheminL2/FLtasksorskills.第三十八页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日Oneexamplefromaconversationtextintheseriesstates:"ManagingYourLearning:Workingwithotherlanguagelearnersimprovesyourlisteningandspeakingskills"(Earle-Carlin&Proctor,1996,p.8).EFLwritingtextsmayhavebriefsectionsonmakingone'sreferentsclear,outlining,andchoosingtherightvocabulary,allofwhichmaybemodelledandusedinLLStrainingincompositioncourse.第三十九页，共四十五页，2022年，8月28日Audiotapes,videotapes,hand-outs,andothermaterialsforthecourseathandshouldalsobeexaminedforLLSorfo