英语语言学-语言学知识点

英语语言学-语言学知识点第一页，共147页。语言学知识点第二页，共147页。I语言学导论II语言学主要分支学科III语言学的流派和理论第三页，共147页。I语言学导论

1.designfeatureoflanguage（语言的定义特征）2.LanguageFamilies(世界语言分类)3.importantdistinctionsinlinguistics(语言学研究中几对重要的概念)4.scopeoflinguistics(语言学的研究范围)第四页，共147页。1.designfeatureoflanguage（语言的定义特征)

definingpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication

第五页，共147页。1.designfeatureoflanguage

语言定义特征

1)Arbitrariness（任意性）2)Duality(二层性)3)Creativity/Productivity(创造性)4)Displacement（移位性）5)CulturalTransmission(文化传递性)第六页，共147页。1）Arbitrariness(任意性):定义：theformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.举例：书,book,livre喜欢，like，aimer第七页，共147页。2）Duality（二层性）:定义：thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevel.举例：

Sounds>syllables>words>phrases>clauses>sentences>texts/discourses第八页，共147页。3）Creativity/Productivity（创造性）:定义：Languagecanbeusedtocreatenewmeanings

becauseofitsduality举例1：/k/,/a:/,/p/----carporpark举例2：England,defeated,FranceEnglanddefeatedFrance.FrancedefeatedEngland.第九页，共147页。4）Displacement（替代性）:定义：Humanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizesomethingwhicharenotpresentatthemomentofcommunication.第十页，共147页。5）CulturalTransmission（文化传递性）:定义：languageispassedonfromgenerationtogenerationthroughteachingandlearningratherthaninstinct.反例：印度狼孩第十一页，共147页。3.Designfeature定义特征1)Arbitrariness（任意性）2)Duality(二层性)3)Creativity/Productivity(创造性)4)Displacement（移位性）5)CulturalTransmission(文化传递性)

如何记忆:五性，创意遗传第十二页，共147页。4.ImportantDistinctionsinLinguistics(语言学研究中几对重要的概念)1)descriptive&prescriptive2)synchronic&diachronic3)langue&parole4)competence&performance第十三页，共147页。1)Descriptive（描述性）vs.Prescriptive（规定性）Descriptive:describinghowthingsare.prescriptive:prescribinghowthingsoughttobe第十四页，共147页。ImportantDistinctionsinLinguistics举例：Don'tsayX.Peopledon'tsayX.Thefirstisaprescriptivecommand,whilethesecondisadescriptivestatement.第十五页，共147页。2).Synchronic（共时性）vs.Diachronic（历时性）synchronic:takesafixedinstantasitspointofobservation.diachronic:thestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.第十六页，共147页。举例：研究1800年的英语发音Synchronicstudies(共时性研究)研究1800-1900的法语语法变化Diachronicstudies(历时研究)第十七页，共147页。2.世界语言分类第十八页，共147页。2.世界语言分类第十九页，共147页。第二十页，共147页。ImportantDistinctionsinLinguistics3).langue（语言）&parole（言语）Theorist：Saussure（索绪尔）,fatherofmodernlinguisticslangue:abstractlinguisticsystemparole:actualrealizationoflangue第二十一页，共147页。ImportantDistinctionsinLinguistics举例：汉语系统langue每个中国人在不同具体场景中说出的具体话语parole第二十二页，共147页。ImportantDistinctionsinLinguistics4)Competence（语言能力）andperformance（语言运用）theorist:Chomsky(乔姆斯基)competence:user'sknowledgeofrulesaboutthelinguisticsystem.performance:theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinconcretesituations.第二十三页，共147页。5.ScopeofLinguistics(语言学的研究范围)1）按研究内容来分2）按研究导向来分第二十四页，共147页。语言学分类-按研究内容分第二十五页，共147页。语言学分类-按研究内容分第二十六页，共147页。第二十七页，共147页。语言学分类-按研究导向分第二十八页，共147页。语言学分类-按研究内容分第二十九页，共147页。语言学分类-按研究内容分第三十页，共147页。考点:1.语音学(phonetics)和音系学(phonology)的定义和区别2.语音学重要概念:清音和浊音3.音系学重要概念:音子，音位,超音段特征

第三十一页，共147页。Phoneticsstudiesallspeechsoundsinhumanlanguages:howtheyareproduced,transmittedandhowtheyarereceived.Phonology:aimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.区别:meaning(是否研究和表达意义有关的语音）第三十二页，共147页。举例:too和tea中的/t/发too中的/t/时,舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部语音学要研究这种/t/发音的不同之处,音系学不研究第三十三页，共147页。Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.第三十四页，共147页。语音学分类articulatoryphonetics(发音语音学):speaker’sproductionacousticphonetics（声学语音学）:transmission’smediumauditoryphonetics(听觉语音学):receiver’sreception第三十五页，共147页。如何记忆phonetics和phonolgy的区别:联想:mathematics,physics,mechanicsphonetics语言学，-ics科学性更强

geology,sociology,astrologyphonology音系学，-ology人文性更强第三十六页，共147页。HowspeechsoundsaremadeSpeechorgans第三十七页，共147页。第三十八页，共147页。Positionofthevocalfolds(声带):voicing(浊音)andvoiceless(清音)第三十九页，共147页。Voiceless(清音)：vocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingtheairstreamgothroughwithoutcausingobstruction清音举例：[p,s,t]Voicing/Voiced（浊音）：vocalcordsheldtogether,lettingtheairstreamvibrates浊音:[b,z,d]第四十页，共147页。Thedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesintheobstructionofairstream.Asthereisnoobstructionofairintheproductionofvowels,thedescriptionoftheconsonantsandvowelscannotbedonealongthesamelines.第四十一页，共147页。音系学定义：studyofhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.音系学重要概念:phone音子，phoneme音位(音系研究的基本单位)supra-segmentalfeatures超音段特征第四十二页，共147页。Phone(音子)：aphoneticunit;thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringcommunicationareallphones举例:too和tea中的/t/发too中的/t/时,舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部所以too和tea中的/t/两个不同的音子第四十三页，共147页。Phoneme(音位):phonologicalandabstractunit,aunitofdistinctivevalue;thesmallestunitofsoundinalanguagewhichcandistinguishtwowords.举例：tea和sea,/t/和/s/是两个不同的音位morpheme第四十四页，共147页。Whatisthepointofdepartureofphonology?A.phoneB.soundC.voiceD.phoneme第四十五页，共147页。Whatisthepointofdepartureofphonology?A.phoneB.soundC.voiceD.phoneme(音位)第四十六页，共147页。Whatisthepointofdepartureofphonetics?A.phoneB.soundC.voiceD.phoneme第四十七页，共147页。Whatisthepointofdepartureofphonetics?A.phoneB.soundC.voiceD.phoneme第四十八页，共147页。Suprasegmentalfeatures(超音段特征)Suprasegmentalfeatures:phonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalsare:第四十九页，共147页。Supra-segmentalfeatures(超音段特征)：stress（重音）举例:perfect(adj)和perfect(v)tone(声调)/pitch(音高):定义:soundfeaturewhicharecausedbythedifferingrateofvibrationofthevocalfolds.举例:mā妈,má麻,mă马，mà骂比较：英语单词，如me第五十页，共147页。intonation（语调）：pitch,stress,andsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation.

举例:第五十一页，共147页。Morphology形态学1.学科定义2.语素的定义和分类3.词的分类（classificationofwords）第五十二页，共147页。形态学研究的基本单位

1.morpheme(语素）.Themostbasicelementofmeaninginlanguage，anelementthatcannotbefurtherdividedintosmallerunitswithoutalteringitsmeaning.举例：ballfootballballs第五十三页，共147页。第五十四页，共147页。TypesofMorphemesFreemorphemesvs.Boundmorphemes（自由语素和黏着语素）:

Freemorphemes:thosethatmayconstitutewordsbythemselves,egboy,girl,table,nation.Boundmorphemes:thosethatcannotoccuralone,eg-s,-ed,dis-,un-.第五十五页，共147页。TypesofBoundMorpheme

Inflectionalmorpheme(屈折语素)=inflectionalaffix(屈折词缀)：changethegrammaticalmeaning(number,aspect,case,tense)Derivationalmorpheme（派生语素）=inflectionalaffix(派生词缀）:changethelexicalmeaning第五十六页，共147页。dis+like+sderivationalfreeinflectionalmorpheme第五十七页，共147页。light+en+edfreederivationalinflectionalmorpheme第五十八页，共147页。Derivationalmorpheme(改变词义):改变词义：dis-,un-,multi-,micro-改变词性：en-,-full,-mentInflectionalmorpheme（改变语法含义）:改变名称的性，数，格：-ess,-s,改变动词的时,态，体:-ing,-ed,改变形容词的级：-er,-est第五十九页，共147页。词的分类-按构词法分第六十页，共147页。如何区分派生词（derivationalword）和合成词(compoundword):拆开后看各个组成的语素能否都单独成词，如果可以，就是合成词，如果不能就是派生词。Businessman:business+manPlayboy:play+boyMouthful:mouth+fulLighten:light+en第六十一页，共147页。词的分类-按词义分第六十二页，共147页。词的分类-按开放性分第六十三页，共147页。词的分类-按在句子重要性分第六十四页，共147页。

分类方法

按构词法分简单词:dislike,light派生词:

dislike,lighten合成词:

cat-like,light-weight按词义分语法词:冠,介，代，连词词汇词:名，动，形，副按开放性分开放词:名，动，形，副封闭词:冠,介，代，连词按在句中重要性分主要词类:名，动，形，副,介次要词类：冠，代，连词第六十五页，共147页。Syntax句法考点1.定义2.句法范畴3.句子类型第六十六页，共147页。1.Syntax定义：:studiesinternalstructureofsentenceandrulesofsentence-formation第六十七页，共147页。Category(范畴):agroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchassentence,anounphraseoraverb(起相同作用的一类语言单位)Syntacticalcategory(句法范畴):agroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinsentence-formation.（在句子构成中起相同作用的一类语言单位）第六十八页，共147页。Syntacticalcategory(句法范畴)Word-----------lexicalcategoryPhrase---------phrasalcategoryClause---------clausalcategorySentence第六十九页，共147页。LexicalCategory词法范畴

=PartsofSpeech词类第七十页，共147页。

分类方法

按构词法分简单词:dislike,light派生词:

dislike,lighten合成词:

cat-like,light-weight按词义分语法词:冠,介，代，连词词汇词:名，动，形，副按开放性分开放词:名，动，形，副封闭词:冠,介，代，连词按在句中重要性分主要词类/范畴:名，动，形，副,介次要词类/范畴：冠，代，连词第七十一页，共147页。phrasespecifierheadcomplementacarfivemetersaway

第七十二页，共147页。SentenceTypes(句子类型) simple

Sentence complex non-simple compound73第七十三页，共147页。4.句子分类：Simplesentence简单句Coordinatesentence并列句Complexsentence复杂句第七十四页，共147页。simplesentence

简单句定义：alsocalledindependentclause,containsasubjectandaverb,anditexpressesacompletethought.

第七十五页，共147页。练习：

JimandMikeplayfootballeveryafternoon.(simplesentence)Marygoestothelibraryandstudieseveryday.(coordinatesentence)第七十六页，共147页。coordinatesentence并列句:containstwoindependentclausesjoinedbyacoordinator(并列连词)suchasand,or,butetc.Coordinatorsareoftenprecededbyacomma.例句:ItriedtospeakSpanish,andmyfriendtriedtospeakEnglish.

Lilywenttoplayfootball,butMariawentshopping.第七十七页，共147页。Youhavetodoitonewayortheother.SimplesentenceTheworkerswerecheerful,oratleasttheyappearedtobecheerful.Coordinatesentence第七十八页，共147页。complexsentence定义：Acomplexsentencehasanindependentclausejoinedwithoneormoredependentclausesbyoneormoresubordinators(从属连词)suchasif,when,because,althoug.第七十九页，共147页。Asheisgrowingold,heseldomgoesout.Heis

growingold,whereashebecomeshealthier.如何区分并列和复杂句---看连词表示的关系

并列，选择和转折关系---并列句时间，条件，原因和让步关系---复杂句

第八十页，共147页。Semantics考点：1.定义：studyofmeaning2.两种基本意义：reference指称和sense涵义3.五种词语语义关系第八十一页，共147页。LudwigWittgenstein:‘Themeaningofawordisitsuseinthelanguage’.Meaningisstudiedbymakingdetailedanalysesofthewaywordsandsentencesareusedinspecificcontexts.Reference（指称）:howlanguagereferstotherealphysicalworld(语言指代外部物质世界)Sense（涵义）:inherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisabstractandthemeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.(语言形式的内在意义)第八十二页，共147页。conceptsymbolizes

referstosymbolreferent(word)standsfor(object)第八十三页，共147页。

第八十四页，共147页。Synonymy

同义Synonymy

同义:samenessorsimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.

第八十五页，共147页。同义分类举例dialecticalsynonym地域同义词：举例:fallandautumn,flatandapartmentstylisticsynonym风格同义词：举例:copandpolice,kidandoffspringcollocationalsynonym搭配同义词：举例:accuseof,chargewith,rebukeforSemanticallydifferentsynonym语义稍有不同的同义词:举例:surpriseandastound,blameandrebuke第八十六页，共147页。Antonymy

反义Antonymy

反义:oppositenessofmeaning.Wordsthatareoppositeinmeaningarecalledantonyms.Antonymy反义关系分类：gradableantonymy等级反义complementaryantonymy互补反义converseantonymy反向反义第八十七页，共147页。Gradableantonymy等级反义young--------middle-aged---------------oldbig--------middle-sized---------------smallgood-------------average-----------------bad第八十八页，共147页。Complementaryantonymy互补反义alive:deadmale:femalepresent:absentinnocent:guiltyodd:evenpass:failboy:girlhit:miss第八十九页，共147页。Converseantonymy反向反义

buy:selllend:borrowgive:receiveparent:childhusband:wifeteacher:studentabove:belowbefore:afterhost:guestemployer:employee第九十页，共147页。Hyponymy上下义关系Hyponymy上下义:referstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Superordinate/hypernym上义词:themoregeneraltermHyponym下义词:themorespecificterm第九十一页，共147页。举例:hypernym上义词:animal

Hyponym下义词:bird,fish,tiger,cat如何记忆:hyper---向上hype炒作hypo---向下hypothesis假设第九十二页，共147页。

Animal

birdfishinsectanimal

humananimal

tigerlionelephant...第九十三页，共147页。Polysemy一词多义Polysemy:thesameonewordhasmorethanonemeaning.Suchawordiscalledpolysemicword.举例:Fish:1.鱼2.鱼肉3.水生动物4.捕鱼5.寻找第九十四页，共147页。Homonymy同音/同形异义词:wordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Identicalinsound:homophones同音词Identicalinspelling:homograph同形词Identicalinboth:completehomonyms同音同形词第九十五页，共147页。homophones同音词：举例:knightandnight,pieceandpeacehomograph同形词举例:tear(v)andtear(n),lead(v)andlead(n)completehomonyms同音同形词:fast(adj)andfast(n)第九十六页，共147页。如何区分同音同形和一词多义现象:beauty,fish,ball,scalebeauty:美丽；美女fish:鱼；鱼肉；水生动物；捕鱼；寻找ball:球；舞会scale:规模；鱼鳞

看其多个意义之间是否有关联，如果有就是一词多义，没有就是同音同形词第九十七页，共147页。Pragmatics语用学

考点:定义和与语义学的区别：studyofmeaningincontextorinuse言语行为理论（两位理论家和三种行为）会话原则第九十八页，共147页。2.SpeechActTheoryJohnAustin(1911-1960)HowtoDoThingswithWords(1962)MainIdea:thingscanbedonewithwords第九十九页，共147页。Constatives(叙事句)vs.performatives（施为句）Constatives（叙事句）:utteranceswhichroughlyservestostateafact,reportthatsomethingisthecase,ordescribewhatsomethingis,eg:IgototheparkeverySunday.IteachEnglish.

第一百页，共147页。Performatives（施为句）:

utteranceswhichareusedtoperformacts,donotdescribeorreportanythingatall;theutteringofthesentenceisthedoingofanaction;theycannotbesaidtobetrueorfalse.Performativeverbs:

name,bet,etc.第一百零一页，共147页。ThreeSpeechActs(三种言语行为)Alocutionaryact(言内行为):theactofutteringwords,phrase,sentences.Itisanactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.

Anillocutionaryact（言外行为）:anactofexpressionspeaker’sintention;itisanactperformedinsayingsomething.Aperlocutionaryact（言后行为）:theactpreformedbyorasaresultofsaying,theeffectsonthehearer.第一百零二页，共147页。三种话语行为-举例老师对学生说:Youhaveleftthedooropen.Locutionaryact(言内行为):theactofutteringthewordsof“you”,“have”,“left”,“the”,“door”,“open”Illocutinaryact(言外行为):theactofexpressingtheteacher’sintentionofaskingthestudenttoclosethedoor.Perlocutionaryact(言后行为):theeffectoftheutterance:studentgoestoclosethedoor第一百零三页，共147页。IllocutionaryActTheory美国哲学家JohnSearle(约翰-塞尔，1932-)在Austin理论基础上把言外行为进一步分为5类：陈述（assertives），指示(directives)，承诺(commissives)，表达(expressives)，宣告（declaratives）104第一百零四页，共147页。ConversationalImplicature（会话含义理论）Theorist：英国语言学家HerbertPaulGrice(格莱斯，1913-1988)MainIdea:Peopledonotusuallysaythingsdirectlybuttendtoimplythem.第一百零五页，共147页。TheCooperativePrinciple(CP，合作原则)

MaximofQuality（数量准则）MaximofQuantity（质量准则）MaximofRelation（关系准则）MaximofManner（方式准则）第一百零六页，共147页。TheCooperativePrinciple(CP，合作原则)

MaximofQuality（数量准则）Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Donotsaysomethingifyoulackadequateevidence;MaximofQuantity（质量准则）MaximofRelation（关系准则）MaximofManner（方式准则）第一百零七页，共147页。MaximofQuality（数量准则）MaximofQuantity（质量准则）：Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanrequired.MaximofRelation（关系准则）MaximofManner（方式准则）第一百零八页，共147页。MaximofQuality（数量准则）MaximofQuantity（质量准则）MaximofRelation（关系准则）：Berelative.MaximofManner（方式准则）第一百零九页，共147页。MaximofQuality（数量准则）MaximofQuantity（质量准则）MaximofRelation（关系准则）MaximofManner(方式准则)：Beperspicuous.Avoidobscurityofexpression.Avoidambiguity.Bebrief.Beorderly.第一百一十页，共147页。Macro-Linguistics

宏观语言学第一百一十一页，共147页。Sociolinguistics社会语言学1.定义2.语言变体languagevariety3.双语第一百一十二页，共147页。Sociolinguistics社会语言学1定义：Thesub-fieldoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesoflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive.Speech语言变体双语第一百一十三页，共147页。Sociolinguistics社会语言学定义Speechvariety/languagevariety语言变体:refertoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.双语第一百一十四页，共147页。第一百一十五页，共147页。第一百一十六页，共147页。第一百一十七页，共147页。Pidgin(洋泾浜语/皮钦语)：aspeciallanguagevarietythatmixesorblendslanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeaksdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.上海洋泾浜

第一百一十八页，共147页。上海话中的洋泾浜英语“蹩脚”（BILGE，船底污水，引申为肮脏的、下三滥的、劣质的）“瘪三”（BEGSIR，乞丐先生，用来形容叫花子、难民、逃荒者等各式穷人，后引申为最广泛的骂人用语之一。“赤佬”是英语“CHEAT”（欺骗）和中文“佬”的混生词语，一个鲁迅时代最流行的洋泾浜俚语（隐语）。第一百一十九页，共147页。Frompidginto

creoles(克里奥语):Pidginhasbecometheprimarylanguageasaresultofintermarriage,itisspokenathomeandlearnedbychildrenasamothertongue.举例.French-basedHaitianCreole,EnglishbasedjamaicaCreole120第一百二十页，共147页。Sociolinguistics社会语言学定义语言变体双语第一百二十一页，共147页。Bilingualism(双语现象)Diglossia(高低双语现象)Multilingualism（多语现象）第一百二十二页，共147页。Bilingualism(双语现象):alinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers.举例：Canada(FrenchandEnglish),Wales(WelshandEnglish)Diglossia(高低双语现象)Multilingualism（多语现象）第一百二十三页，共147页。Bilingualism(双语现象)Diglossia(高低双语现象):alinguisticsituationinwhichtwovarietiesofalanguageexistsidebysidethroughoutthecommunity,witheachhavingadefiniteroletoplay.举例：Switzerland:HighGermanasthestandard(public,official)SwissGermanasthevernacular(informal,daily)Multilingualism（多语现象）第一百二十四页，共147页。Bilingualism(双语现象)Diglossia(高低双语现象)Multilingualism（多语现象）:alinguisticsituationinwhichmorethantwolanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers.举例：Singapore(English,Chinese,Malay)

第一百二十五页，共147页。Bilingualism(双语现象):alinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakersDiglossia(高低双语现象):alinguisticsituationinwhichtwovarietiesofalanguageexistsidebysidethroughoutthecommunity,witheachhavingadefiniteroletoplayMultilingualism（多语现象）:alinguisticsituationmorethantwovarietiesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers第一百二十六页，共147页。人类语言学AnthropologicalLinguistics定义:studyoftherelationshipbetweencultureandlanguage假说：Sapir-WhorfHypothesis(萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说)：structureofthelanguagepeopleuseinfluencesthewaytheythinkandbehave(简言之,语言影响人的思想行为)第一百二十七页，共147页。Sapir-WhorfHypothesisEdwardSapir(1884-1939)andBenjaminLeeWhorf(1897-1941)Ourlanguagehelpsmouldourwayofthinkingand,consequently,differentlanguagesmayprobablyexpressspeakers’uniquewaysofunderstandingtheworld.

Linguisticdeterminism:Lmaydetermineourthinkingpatterns.Linguisticrelativity:differentlanguagesofferpeopledifferentwaysofexpressingtheworldaround.128第一百二十八页，共147页。English:horseshoeFrench:feracheval

——ironforhorseGerman:hufeisen——hoofironTheEskimoshavecountlesswordsforsnow.TheArabs,forcamels.129第一百二十九页，共147页。心理语言学Psycholinguistics:thestudyofthementalprocessoflanguagecomprehensionandproduction.计算机语言学ComputationalLinguistics:studyoftheuseofcomputerstoprocessandproducehumanlanguage.第一百三十页，共1