tpo1-33阅读原文翻译

WhichHandDidTheyWeallknowthatmanymorepeopletodayareright-handedthanleft-handed.Canonetracethissamepatternfarbackinprehistory?Muchoftheevidenceaboutright-handversusleft-handdominancecomesfromstencilsandprintsfoundinrocksheltersinAustraliaandelsewhere,andinmanyIceAgecavesinFrance,Spain,andTasmania.Whenalefthandhasbeenstenciled,thisimpliesthatthe right-handed,andviceversa.Eventhoughthepaintwasoftensprayedonbymouth,onecanassumethatthedominanthandassistedintheoperation.Onealsohastomaketheassumptionthathandswerestenciledpalmdownward—alefthandstenciledpalmupwardmightofcourselookasifitwerearighthand.Of158stencilsintheFrenchcaveofGargas,136havebeenidentifiedasleft,andonly22asright;right-handednesswasthereforeheavilypredominant.Caveartfurnishesothertypesofevidenceofthisphenomenon.Mostengravings,forexample,arebestlitfromtheleft,asbefitstheworkofright-handeds,whogenerallyprefertohavethelightsourceontheleftsothattheshadowoftheirhanddoesnotfallonthetipoftheengravingtoolorbrush.InthefewcaseswhereanIceAgefigureisdepictedholdingsomething,itismostly,thoughnotalways,intherightCluestoright-handednesscanalsobefoundbyothermethods.Right-handerstendtohavelonger,stronger,andmoremuscularbonesontherightside,andMarcellinBouleaslongagoas1911notedtheLaChapelle-aux-SaintsNeanderthalskeletonhadarightupperarmbonethatwasnoticeablystrongerthantheleft.SimilarobservationshavebeenmadeonotherNeanderthalskeletonssuchasLaFerrassieIandNeanderthalitself.Fracturesandothercutmarksareanothersourceofevidence.Right-handedsoldierstendtobewoundedontheleft.Theskeletonofa40-or50-year-oldNabateanwarrior,buried2,000yearsagointheNegevDesert,Israel,hadmultiplehealedfracturestotheskull,theleftarm,andtheribs.Toolsthemselvescanberevealing.Long-handedNeolithicspoonsofyewpinAlpinevillagesdatingto3000B.C.havesurvived;thesignsofrubbingontheirleftsideindicatethattheiruserswereright-handed.ThelateIceAgeropefoundintheFrenchcaveofLascauxconsistsoffibersspiralingtotheright,andwasthereforetressedbyarighthander.Occasionallyonecandeterminewhetherstonetoolswereusedintherighthandortheleft,anditisevenpossibletoassesshowfarbackthisfeaturecanbetraced.Instonetoolmakingexperiments,NickToth,aright-hander,heldthecore(thestonethatwould ethetool)inhislefthandandthehammerstoneinhisright.Asthetoolwasmade,thecorewasrotatedclockwise,andtheflakes,removedinsequence,hadalittlecrescentofcortex(thecore'soutersurface)ontheside.Toth'sknapproduced56percentflakeswiththecortexontheright,and44percentleft-orientedflakes.Aleft-handedtoolmakerwouldproducetheoppositepattern.Tothhasappliedthesecriteriatothesimilarlymadepebbletoolsfromanumberofearlysites(before1.5millionyears)atKoobiFora,Kenya,probablymadebyHomohabilis.Atsevensiteshefoundthat57percentoftheflakeswereright-oriented,and43percentleft,apatternalmostidenticaltothatproducedtoday.About90percentofmodernhumansareright-handed:wearetheonlym withapreferentialuseofonehand.Thepartofthebrainresponsibleforfinecontrolandmovementislocatedintheleftcerebralhemisphere,andthefindingsabovesuggestthatthehumanbrainwasalreadyasymmetricalinitsstructureandfunctionnotlongafter2millionyearsago.AmongNeanderthalersof70,000–35,000yearsago,MarcellinBoulenotedthattheLaChapelle-aux-Saintsindividualhadalefthemisphereslightlybiggerthantheright,andthesamewasfoundforbrainsofspecimensfromNeanderthal,Gibraltar,andLaQuina.

为左手，只有22个是右手；右手习惯是据绝对主导地位的。肌肉的骨骼。MarcellinBoule1911提到的尼安德特人的骨架有一个右例如laFerrassie和尼安德特人本族的族人。3000Toth’s5644留在了左侧朝Theshiftfromsilenttosoundfilmattheendofthe1920smarks,sofar,themostimportanttransformationinmotionpicturehistory.Despiteallthehighlyvisibletechnologicaldevelopmentsintheatricalandhomedeliveryofthemovingimagethathaveoccurredoverthedecadessincethen,nosingleinnovationhascomeclosetobeingregardedasasimilarkindofwatershed.Innearlyeverylanguage,howeverthewordsarephrased,themostbasicdivisionincinemahistoryliesbetweenfithataremuteandfithatspeak.Yetthismostfundamentalstandardofhistoricalperiodizationconcealsahostofparadoxes.Nearlyeverymovietheater,howevermodest,hadapianoororgantoprovidemusical panimenttosilentpictures.Inmanyinstances,spectatorsintheerabeforerecordedsoundexperiencedelaborateauralpresentationsalongsidemovies'visualimages,fromtheJapanesebenshi(narrators)craftingmultivoiceddialoguenarrativestooriginalmusicalcompositionsperformedbysymphony-sizeorchestrasinEuropeandtheUnitedStates.InBerlin,fortheeperformanceoutsidetheSovietUnionofTheBattleshipPotemkin,filmdirectorSergeiEisensteinworkedwithAustriancomposerEdmundMeisel(1874-1930)onamusicalscorematchingsoundtoimage;theBerlinscreeningswithlivemusichelpedtobringthefilmitswideinternationalfame.Beyondthat,thetriumphofrecordedsoundhasovershadowedtherichdiversityoftechnologicalandaestheticexperimentswiththevisualimagethatweregoingforwardsimultaneouslyinthe1920s.Newcolorprocesses,largerordifferentlyshapedscreensizes,multiple-screenprojections,evenevision,wereamongthedevelopmentsinventedortriedoutduringtheperiod,sometimeswithstartlingsuccess.Thehighcostsofconvertingtosoundandtheearlylimitationsofsoundtechnologywereamongthefactorsthatsuppressedinnovationsorretardedadvancementintheseotherareas.Theintroductionofnewscreenformatswasputoffforaquartercentury,andcolor,thoughutilizedoverthenexttwodecadesforspecialproductions,alsodidnot eanormuntilthe1950s.Thoughitmaybedifficulttoimaginefromalater,astrainofcriticalopinioninthe1920spredictedthatsoundfilmwouldbeatechnicalnoveltythatwouldsoonfadefromsight,justashadmanypreviousattempts,datingwellbackbeforetheFirstWorldWar,tolinkimageswithrecordedsound.Thesecriticsweremakingacommonassumption—thatthetechnologicalinadequaciesofearlierefforts(poorsynchronization,weaksoundamplification,fragilesoundrecordings)wouldinvariablyoccuragain.Tobesure,theirevaluationofthetechnicalflawsin1920ssoundexperimentswasnotsofaroffthemark,yettheyneglectedtotakeintoaccountimportantnewsinthemotionpicturefieldthat,inasense,wouldnottakenoforan sweretherapidlyexpandingelectronicsand companiesthatweredeveloandlinkingephoneandwirelessinthe1920s.IntheUnitedStates,theyincludedsuchfirmsasAmericanephoneandegraph,GeneralElectric,andWestinghouse.Theywereinterestedinallformsofsoundtechnologyandallpotentialavenuesforcommercialexploitation.TheircompetitionandcollaborationwerecreatingthebroadcastingindustryintheUnitedStates,beginningwiththeintroductionofcommercialradioprogrammingintheearly1920s.Withfinancialassetsconsiderablygreaterthanthoseinthemotionpictureindustry,andperhapsawidervisionoftherelationshipsamongentertainmentandcommunicationsmedia,theyrevitalizedresearchintorecordingsoundformotionpictures.In1929theUnitedStatesmotionpictureindustryreleasedmorethan300sound —aroughfigure,sinceanumberweresilentfi withmusictracks,orfipreparedindualversions,totakeaccountofthemanycinemasnotyetwiredforsound.Attheproductionlevel,intheUnitedStatestheconversionwasvirtuallycompleteby1930.InEuropeittookalittlelonger,mainlybecausethereweremoresmallproducersforwhomthecostsofsoundwereprohibitive,andinotherpartsoftheworldproblemswithrightsoraccesstoequipmentdelayedtheshifttosoundproductionforafewmoreyears(thoughcinemasinmajorcitiesmayhavebeenwiredinordertoyforeignsoundfi).Thetriumphofsoundcinemawasswift,complete,andenormouslypopular.

史上最为重大的一次过渡——从无声到有声的发生在1920年的年都是这样描述的：史上最基本的分水岭就是从默片到中语音的加入。音效呈现，从的benshi()的多点音效的演绎到欧洲和由管弦交创作与相匹配的音效；柏林的放映的同时现场演奏音乐让这种形式有了国际。25年，彩色，在接虽然这件在事后很难想象，但是在1920年一个倾向性的性观点预测有声电小的音量和断断续续的。为了证实这个观点，他们在1920年试验中所估测的技术缺陷仍然很大，之后他们就不再对这一范畴内的重要力量进行1920年，这个了力量急速的扩张发展出了连接与无线电工艺的电子公司和电子通讯公司。在，他们包括了像与电报这样的公司。通用电在1920年的早期，这些竞争与合作开创了的广播产业，开始引入了商业广播。由于贡献明显的比那些工业的多，而且他们在与交互之间的关系上有一个更广的看法，他们重启了配音的研究。一个粗略的统计表明，1929年的产业放出了超过300部有声，同时还有一定数量的默片音轨，或者为准备两个版本以照顾一些还没有声音部件的院。在生产环节的转换最终完成与1930年。欧洲要稍微晚一点更城市的院为了外国可能已经添加了设备。有声取得了胜利，WaterintheRainfallisnotcompleyabsentindesertareas,butitishighlyvariable.Anannualrainfalloffourinchesisoftenusedtodefinethelimitsofadesert.Theimpactofrainfalluponthesurfacewaterandgroundwaterresourcesofthedesertisgreatlyinfluencedbylandforms.Flatsanddepressionswherewatercancollectarecommonfeatures,buttheymakeuponlyasmallpartofthelandscape.Aridlands,surprisingly,containsomeoftheworld’slargestriversystems,suchastheMurray-DarlinginAustralia,theRioGrandeinNorthAmerica,theIndusinAsia,andtheNileinAfrica.Theseriversandriversystemsareknownas"exogenous"becausetheirsourceslieoutsidethearidzone.Theyarevitalforsustaininglifeinsomeofthedriestpartsoftheworld.Forcenturies,theannualfloodsoftheNile,Tigris,andEuphrates,forexample,havebroughtfertilesiltsandwatertotheinhabitantsoftheirlowervalleys.Today,riverdischargesareincreasinglycontrolledbyhumanintervention,creatinganeedforinternationalriver-basinagreements.ThefillingoftheAtaturkandotherdamsinTurkeyhasdrasticallyreducedflowsintheEuphrates,withpotentiallyseriousconsequencesforSyriaandIraq.Theflowofexogenousriversvarieswiththeseason.Thedesertsectionsoflongriversrespondseveralmonthsafterrainhasfallenoutsidethedesert,sothatpeakflowsmaybeinthedryseason.Thisisusefulforirrigation,butthehightemperatures,lowhumidities,anddifferentdaylengthsofthedryseason,comparedtothenormalgrowingseason,canpresentdifficultieswithsomecrops.Regularlyflowingriversandstreamsthatoriginatewithinaridlandsareknownas"endogenous."Thesearegenerallyfedbygroundwatersprings,andmanyissuefromlimestonemassifs,suchastheAtlasMountainsinMorocco.Basalticrocksalsosupportsprings,notablyattheJabalAl-ArabontheJordan-Syriaborder.Endogenousriversoftendonotreachtheseabutdrainintoinlandbasins,wherethewaterevaporatesorislostintheground.Mostdesertstreambedsarenormallydry,buttheyoccasionallyreceivelargeflowsofwaterandsediment.Desertscontainlargeamountsofgroundwaterwhencomparedtotheamountstheyholdinsurfacestoressuchaslakesandrivers.Butonlyasmallfractionofgroundwaterentersthehydrologicalcycle—feedingtheflowsofstreams,maintaininglakelevels,andbeingrecharged(orrefilled)throughsurfaceflowsandrainwater.Inrecentyears,groundwaterhas eanincreasinglyimportantsourceoffreshwaterfordesertdwellers.TheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeandtheWorldBankhavefundedattemptstosurveythegroundwaterresourcesofaridlandsandtodevelopappropriateextractiontechniques.Suchprogramsaremuchneededbecauseinmanyaridlandsthereisonlyavagueideaoftheextentofgroundwaterresources.Itisknown,however,thatthedistributionofgroundwaterisuneven,andthatmuchofitliesatgreatdepths.Groundwaterisstoredintheporespacesandjointsofrocksandunconsolidated(unsolidified)sedimentsorintheopeningswidenedthro