可直接打印考研英语真题(1997-2012)

2012年全国硕士研究生入学统一考试英语试题

SectionIUseofEnglish

Directions:

Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestword(s)foreachnumberedblankand

mark[AJf[B],[CJor[D]onANSWERSHEET1.(10points)

TheethicaljudgmentsoftheSupremeCourtjusticeshavebecomeanimportant

issuerecently.Thecourtcannotitslegitimacyasguardianoftheruleoflaw

_2_justicesbehavelikepoliticians.Yet,inseveralinstances,justicesactedinways

that3thecourt'sreputationforbeingindependentandimpartial.

JusticeAntoninScalia,forexample,appearedatpoliticalevents.Thatkindof

activitymakesitlesslikelythatthecourt'sdecisionswillbe_4_asimpartial

judgments.Partoftheproblemisthatthejusticesarenot_5_byanethicscode.At

theveryleast,thecourtshouldmakeitselftothecodeofconductthatJ__tothe

restofthefederaljudiciary.

Thisandothersimilarcasesathequestionofwhetherthereisstilla

_9_betweenthecourtandpolitics.

TheframersoftheConstitutionenvisionedlaw_j_0_havingauthorityapartfrom

politics.Theygavejusticespermanentpositions_11_theywouldbefreeto12

thoseinpowerandhavenoneedto_13_politicalsupport.Ourlegalsystemwas

designedtosetlawapartfrompoliticspreciselybecausetheyaresoclosely14.

Constitutionallawispoliticalbecauseitresultsfromchoicesrootedin

fundamentalsocial_L5_likelibertyandproperty.Whenthecourtdealswithsocial

policydecisions,thelawit_16_isinescapablypolitical-whichiswhydecisionssplit

alongideologicallinesaresoeasilyJ7asunjust.

Thejusticesmust_18—doubtsaboutthecourt'slegitimacybymaking

themselves_19_tothecodeofconduct.Thatwouldmakerulingsmorelikelytobe

seenasseparatefrompoliticsand,_20_.convincingaslaw.

1.[AJemphasize[B]maintain[CJmodify[DJrecognize

2.[AJwhen[B]lest[CJbefore[DJunless

3.[A]restored[B]weakened[C]established[D]eliminated

4.[A]challenged[B]compromised[CJsuspected[DJaccepted

5.[A]advanced[B]caught[CJbound[DJfounded

6.[A]resistant[B]subject[C]immune[D]prone

7.[A]resorts[B]sticks[C]loads[D]applies

8.[AJevade[B]raise[CJdeny[DJsettle

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9.[AJline[BJbarrier[CJsimilarityID]conflict

10.[A]by[BJas[CJthoughID]towards

11.[A]so[B]sincefC]provided[D]though

12.[AJserve[B]satisfy[CJupset[DJreplace

13.[AJconfirm[BJexpress[CJcultivate[DJoffer

14.[A]guarded[B]followed[C]studied[D]tied

15.[A]concepts[BJtheories[CJdivisions[DJconceptions

16.[A]excludes[B]questions[CJshapes[DJcontrols

17.[A]dismissed[B]released[C]ranked[D]distorted

18.[AJsuppress[BJexploit[CJaddress[D]ignore

19.[AJaccessible[BJamiable[CJagreeable[DJaccountable

20.[A]byallmeans[B]atallcosts[C]inaword[D]asaresult

SectionIIReadingComprehension

PartA

Directions:

Readthefallowingfourtexts.Answerthequestionsbeloweachtextbychoosing[A]f

[B],[CJorID].MarkyouranswersonANSWERSHEET1.(40points)

Text1

Comeon-Everybody'sdoingit.Thatwhisperedmessage,halfinvitationand

halfforcing,iswhatmostofusthinkofwhenwehearthewordspeerpressure.It

usuallyleadstonogood-drinking,drugsandcasualsex.ButinhernewbookJoin

theClub,TinaRosenbergcontendsthatpeerpressurecanalsobeapositiveforce

throughwhatshecallsthesocialcure,inwhichorganizationsandofficialsusethe

powerofgroupdynamicstohelpindividualsimprovetheirlivesandpossiblythe

word.

Rosenberg,therecipientofaPulitzerPrize,offersahostofexampleofthe

socialcureinaction:InSouthCarolina,astate-sponsoredantismokingprogram

calledRageAgainsttheHazesetsouttomakecigarettesuncool.InSouthAfrica,an

HIV-preventioninitiativeknownasLoveLiferecruitsyoungpeopletopromotesafe

sexamongtheirpeers.

Theideaseemspromising,andRosenbergisaperceptiveobserver.Hercritique

ofthelamenessofmanypubic-healthcampaignsisspot-on:theyfailtomobilize

peerpressureforhealthyhabits,andtheydemonstrateaseriouslyflawed

understandingofpsychology.^^Daretobedifferent,pleasedon'tsmoke!^^pleadsone

billboardcampaignaimedatreducingsmokingamongteenagers-teenagers,who

desirenothingmorethanfittingin.Rosenbergarguesconvincinglythatpublic-health

advocatesoughttotakeapagefromadvertisers,soskilledatapplyingpeerpressure.

Butonthegeneraleffectivenessofthesocialcure,Rosenbergislesspersuasive.

JointheClubisfilledwithtoomuchirrelevantdetailandnotenoughexplorationof

thesocialandbiologicalfactorsthatmakepeerpressuresopowerful.Themost

glaringflawofthesocialcureasit'spresentedhereisthatitdoesn'tworkverywell

forverylong.RageAgainsttheHazefailedoncestatefundingwascut.Evidence

thattheLoveLifeprogramproduceslastingchangesislimitedandmixed.

There?snodoubtthatourpeergroupsexertenormousinfluenceonourbehavior.

Anemergingbodyofresearchshowsthatpositivehealthhabits-aswellasnegative

ones-spreadthroughnetworksoffriendsviasocialcommunication.Thisisasubtle

formofpeerpressure:weunconsciouslyimitatethebehaviorweseeeveryday.

Farlesscertain,however,ishowsuccessfullyexpertsandbureaucratscanselect

ourpeergroupsandsteertheiractivitiesinvirtuousdirections.It'sliketheteacher

whobreaksupthetroublemakersinthebackrowbypairingthemwith

better-behavedclassmates.Thetacticneverreallyworks.Andthat'stheproblem

withasocialcureengineeredfromtheoutside:intherealworld,asinschool,we

insistonchoosingourownfiiends.

21.Accordingtothefirstparagraph,peerpressureoftenemergesas

[A]asupplementtothesocialcure

[B]astimulustogroupdynamics

fC]anobstacletoschoolprogress

[DJacauseofundesirablebehaviors

22.Rosenbergholdsthatpublicadvocatesshould

[A]recruitprofessionaladvertisers

[B]learnfromadvertisers,experience

[C]stayawayfromcommercialadvertisers

[D]recognizethelimitationsofadvertisements

23.Intheauthor'sview,Rosenberg'sbookfailsto

[A]adequatelyprobesocialandbiologicalfactors

[BJeffectivelyevadetheflawsofthesocialcure

[C]illustratethefunctionsofstatefunding

[DJproducealong-lastingsocialeffect

24.Paragraph5showsthatourimitationofbehaviors

[A]isharmfultoournetworksoffriends

4考研英语真题

[BJwillmisleadbehavioralstudies

[C]occurswithoutourrealizingit

[D]canproducenegativehealthhabits

25.Theauthorsuggestsinthelastparagraphthattheeffectofpeerpressureis

[A]harmful

[B]desirable

[C]profound

[D]questionable

Text2

Adealisadeal-except,apparently,whenEntergyisinvolved.Thecompany,a

majorenergysupplierinNewEngland,provokedjustifiedoutrageinVermontlast

weekwhenitannounceditwasrenegingonalongstandingcommitmenttoabideby

thestrictnuclearregulations.

Instead,thecompanyhasdonepreciselywhatithadlongpromiseditwouldnot

challengetheconstitutionalityofVermont^rulesinthefederalcourt,aspartofa

desperateefforttokeepitsVermontYankeenuclearpowerplantrunning.It'sa

stunningmove.

Theconflicthasbeensurfacingsince2002,whenthecorporationbought

Vermont^onlynuclearpowerplant,anagingreactorinVernon.Asaconditionof

receivingstateapprovalforthesale,thecompanyagreedtoseekpermissionfrom

stateregulatorstooperatepast2012.In2006,thestatewentastepfurther,requiring

thatanyextensionoftheplant'slicensebesubjecttoVermontlegislature'sapproval.

Then,too,thecompanywentalong.

EitherEntergyneverreallyintendedtolivebythosecommitments,oritsimply

didn'tforeseewhatwouldhappennext.Astringofaccidents,includingthepartial

collapseofacoolingtowerin207andthediscoveryofanundergroundpipesystem

leakage,raisedseriousquestionsaboutbothVermontYankee'ssafetyandEntergy's

management-especiallyafterthecompanymademisleadingstatementsaboutthe

pipe.EnragedbyEntergy'sbehavior,theVermontSenatevoted26to4lastyear

againstallowinganextension.

Nowthecompanyissuddenlyclaimingthatthe2002agreementisinvalid

becauseofthe2006legislation,andthatonlythefederalgovernmenthasregulatory

powerovernuclearissues.Thelegalissuesinthecaseareobscure:whereasthe

SupremeCourthasruledthatstatesdohavesomeregulatoryauthorityovernuclear

power,legalscholarssaythatVermontcasewillofferaprecedent-settingtestofhow

farthosepowersextend.Certainly,therearevalidconcernsaboutthepatchwork

regulationsthatcouldresultifeverystatesetsitsownrules.ButhadEntergykeptits

word,thatdebatewouldbebesidethepoint.

ThecompanyseemstohaveconcludedthatitsreputationinVermontisalready

sodamagedthatithasnotinglefttolosebygoingtowarwiththestate.Butthere

shouldbeconsequences.Permissiontorunanuclearplantisapoblictrust.Entergy

runs11otherreactorsintheUnitedStates,includingPilgrimNuclearstationin

Plymouth.PledgingtorunPilgrimsafely,thecompanyhasappliedforfederal

permissiontokeepitopenforanother20years.ButastheNuclearRegulatory

Commission(NRC)reviewsthecompany'sapplication,itshouldkeepitmindwhat

promisesfromEntergyareworth.

26.Thephrase“renegingon”(Line3.para.l)isclosestinmeaningto

[A]condemning.

[B]reaffirming.

[C]dishonoring.

[D]securing.

27.Byenteringintothe2002agreement,Entergyintendedto

[AJobtainprotectionfromVermontregulators.

[B]seekfavorfromthefederallegislature.

[C]acquireanextensionofitsbusinesslicense.

[D]getpermissiontopurchaseapowerplant.

28.AccordingtoParagraph4,Entergyseemstohaveproblemswithits

[AJmanagerialpractices.

[B]technicalinnovativeness.

[C]financialgoals.

[DIbusinessvision

29.Intheauthor'sview,theVermontcasewilltest

[A]Entergy'scapacitytofulfillallitspromises.

[BJthematureofstates'patchworkregulations.

fC]thefederalauthorityovernuclearissues.

[D]thelimitsofstates'powerovernuclearissues.

30.Itcanbeinferredfromthelastparagraphthat

[A]Entergy'sbusinesselsewheremightbeaffected.

[B]theauthorityoftheNRCwillbedefied.

[C]EntergywillwithdrawitsPlymouthapplication.

[D]Vermont^reputationmightbedamaged.

Text3

Intheidealizedversionofhowscienceisdone,factsabouttheworldare

waitingtobeobservedandcollectedbyobjectiveresearcherswhousethescientific

methodtocarryouttheirwork.Butintheeverydaypracticeofscience,discovery

frequentlyfollowsanambiguousandcomplicatedroute.Weaimtobeobjective,but

wecannotescapethecontextofouruniquelifeexperience.Priorknowledgeand

interestinfluencewhatweexperience,whatwethinkourexperiencesmean,andthe

subsequentactionswetake.Opportunitiesformisinterpretation,error,and

self-deceptionabound.

6考研英语真题

Consequently,discoveryclaimsshouldbethoughtofasprotoscience.Similarto

newlystakedminingclaims,theyarefullofpotential.Butittakescollectivescrutiny

andacceptancetotransformadiscoveryclaimintoamaturediscovery.Thisisthe

credibilityprocess,throughwhichtheindividualresearcher'sme,here,now

becomesthecommunity'sanyone,anywhere,anytime.Objectiveknowledgeisthe

goal,notthestartingpoint.

Onceadiscoveryclaimbecomespublic,thediscovererreceivesintellectual

credit.But,unlikewithminingclaims,thecommunitytakescontrolofwhathappens

next.Withinthecomplexsocialstructureofthescientificcommunity,researchers

makediscoveries;editorsandreviewersactasgatekeepersbycontrollingthe

publicationprocess;otherscientistsusethenewfindingtosuittheirownpurposes;

andfinally,thepublic(includingotherscientists)receivesthenewdiscoveryand

possiblyaccompanyingtechnology.Asadiscoveryclaimworksitthroughthe

community,theinteractionandconfrontationbetweensharedandcompetingbeliefs

aboutthescienceandthetechnologyinvolvedtransformsanindividuafsdiscovery

claimintothecommunity'scrediblediscovery.

Twoparadoxesexistthroughoutthiscredibilityprocess.First,scientificwork

tendstofocusonsomeaspectofprevailingKnowledgethatisviewedasincomplete

orincorrect.Littlerewardaccompaniesduplicationandconfirmationofwhatis

alreadyknownandbelieved.Thegoalisnew-search,notre-search.Notsurprisingly,

newlypublisheddiscoveryclaimsandcrediblediscoveriesthatappeartobe

importantandconvincingwillalwaysbeopentochallengeandpotential

modificationorrefutationbyfutureresearchers.Second,noveltyitselffrequently

provokesdisbelief.NobelLaureateandphysiologistAlbertAzent-Gyorgyionce

describeddiscoveryas"seeingwhateverybodyhasseenandthinkingwhatnobody

hasthought.^^Butthinkingwhatnobodyelsehasthoughtandtellingotherswhatthey

havemissedmaynotchangetheirviews.Sometimesyearsarerequiredfortruly

noveldiscoveryclaimstobeacceptedandappreciated.

Intheend,credibility“happens“toadiscoveryclaim-aprocessthat

correspondstowhatphilosopherAnnetteBaierhasdescribedasthecommonsofthe

mind."Wereasontogether,challenge,revise,andcompleteeachother'sreasoning

andeachother'sconceptionsofreason.^^

31.Accordingtothefirstparagraph,theprocessofdiscoveryischaracterized

byits

[AJuncertaintyandcomplexity.

[B]misconceptionanddeceptiveness.

[C]logicalityandobjectivity.

[D]systematicnessandregularity.

32.ItcanbeinferredfromParagraph2thatcredibilityprocessrequires

[A]strictinspection.

[B]sharedefforts.

[C]individualwisdom.

[DJpersistentinnovation.

33.Paragraph3showsthatadiscoveryclaimbecomescredibleafterit

[A]hasattractedtheattentionofthegeneralpublic.

[BJhasbeenexaminedbythescientificcommunity.

[C]hasreceivedrecognitionfromeditorsandreviewers.

[DJhasbeenfrequentlyquotedbypeerscientists.

34.AlbertSzent-Gyorgyiwouldmostlikelyagreethat

[A]scientificclaimswillsurvivechallenges.

[BJdiscoveriestodayinspirefutureresearch.

fC]effortstomakediscoveriesarejustified.

[DJscientificworkcallsforacriticalmind.

35.Whichofthefollowingwouldbethebesttitleofthetest?

[A]NoveltyasanEngineofScientificDevelopment.

[BJCollectiveScrutinyinScientificDiscovery.

[C]EvolutionofCredibilityinDoingScience.

[DJChallengetoCredibilityattheGatetoScience.

Text4

IfthetradeunionistJimmyHoffawerealivetoday,hewouldprobably

representcivilservant.WhenHoffa'sTeamsterswereintheirprimein1960,only

oneintenAmericangovernmentworkersbelongedtoaunion;now36%do.In2009

thenumberofunionistsinAmerica'spublicsectorpassedthatoftheirfellow

membersintheprivatesector.InBritain,morethanhalfofpublic-sectorworkersbut

onlyabout15%ofprivate-sectoronesareunionized.

Therearethreereasonsforthepublic-sectorunions'thriving.First,theycan

shutthingsdownwithoutsufferingmuchinthewayofconsequences.Second,they

aremostlybrightandwell-educated.AquarterofAmerica'spublic-sectorworkers

haveauniversitydegree.Third,theynowdominateleft-of-centrepolitics.Someof

theirtiesgobackalongway.Britain'sLaborParty,asitsnameimplies,haslong

beenassociatedwithtradeunionism.Itscurrentleader,EdMiliband,oweshis

positiontovotesfrompublic-sectorunions.

Atthestateleveltheirinfluencecanbeevenmorefearsome.MarkBaldassare

ofthePublicPolicyInstituteofCaliforniapointsoutthatmuchofthestate'sbudget

ispatrolledbyunions.Theteachers9unionskeepaneyeonschools,theCCPOAon

prisonsandavarietyoflaborgroupsonhealthcare.

Inmanyrichcountriesaveragewagesinthestatesectorarehigherthaninthe

privateone.Buttherealgainscomeinbenefitsandworkpractices.Politicianshave

repeatedly“backloaded“public-sectorpaydeals,keepingthepayincreasesmodest

butaddingtoholidaysandespeciallypensionsthatarealreadygenerous.

Reformhasbeenvigorouslyopposed,perhapsmostegregiouslyineducation,

wherecharterschools,academiesandmeritpayallfaceddrawn-outbattles.Even

thoughthereisplentyofevidencethatthequalityoftheteachersisthemost

8考研英语真题

importantvariable,teachers,unionshavefoughtagainstgettingridofbadonesand

promotinggoodones.

Asthecosttoeveryoneelsehasbecomeclearer,politicianshavebegunto

clampdown.InWisconsintheunionshaveralliedthousandsofsupportersagainst

ScottWalker,thehardlineRepublicangovernor.Butmanywithinthepublicsector

sufferunderthecuirentsystem,too.

JohnDonahueatHarvard'sKennedySchoolpointsoutthatthenormsof

cultureinWesterncivilservicessuitthosewhowanttostayputbutisbadforhigh

achievers.TheonlyAmericanpublic-sectorworkerswhoearnwellabove$250,000

ayearareuniversitysportscoachesandthepresidentoftheUnitedStates.Bankers,

fotpaypacketshaveattractedmuchcriticism,butapublic-sectorsystemthatdoes

notrewardhighachieversmaybeamuchbiggerproblemforAmerica.

36.Itcanbelearnedfromthefirstparagraphthat

[A]Teamstersstillhavealargebodyofmembers.

[BJJimmyHoffausedtoworkasacivilservant.

[C]unionshaveenlargedtheirpublic-sectormembership.

[DJthegovernmenthasimproveditsrelationshipwithunionists.

37.WhichofthefollowingistrueofParagraph2?

[A]Public-sectorunionsareprudentintakingactions.

[B]Educationisrequiredforpublic-sectorunionmembership.

[C]LaborPartyhaslongbeenfightingagainstpublic-sectorunions.

[DJPublic-sectorunionsseldomgetintroublefortheiractions.

38.ItcanbelearnedfromParagraph4thattheincomeinthestatesectoris

[A]illegallysecured.

[BJindirectlyaugmented.

[C]excessivelyincreased.

[D]fairlyadjusted.

39.TheexampleoftheunionsinWisconsinshowsthatunions

[A]oftenrunagainstthecurrentpoliticalsystem.

[BJcanchangepeople'spoliticalattitudes.

[C]maybeabarriertopublic-sectorreforms.

[D]aredominantinthegovernment.

40.JohnDonahue'sattitudetowardsthepublic-sectorsystemisoneof

[AJdisapproval.

[B]appreciation.

[C]tolerance.

[DJindifference.

PartB

Directions:

Thefallowingparagrapharegiveninawrongorder.ForQuestions41-45,you

arerequiredtoreorganizetheseparagraphsintoacoherenttextbychoosingfrom

thelistA-Gtofillingthemintothenumberedboxes.ParagraphsEandGhavebeen

correctlyplaced.MarkyouranswersonANSWERSHEETL(10points)

Thinkofthosefleetingmomentswhenyoulookoutofanaeroplanewindow

andrealisethatyouareflying,higherthanabird.Nowthinkofyourlaptop,thinner

thanabrown-paperenvelope,oryourcellphoneinthepalmofyourhand.Takea

momentortwotowonderatthosemarvels.Youaretheluckyinheritorofadream

cometrue.

Thesecondhalfofthe20thcenturysawacollectionofgeniuses,warriors,

entrepreneursandvisionarieslabourtocreateafabulousmachinethatcouldfunction

asatypewriterandprintingpress,studioandtheatre,paintbrushandgallery,piano

andradio,themailaswellasthemailcarrier.(41)

Thenetworkedcomputerisanamazingdevice,thefirstmediamachinethat

servesasthemodeofproduction,meansofdistribution,siteofreception,andplace

ofpraiseandcritique.Thecomputeristhe21stcentury'sculturemachine.

Butforallthereasonstherearetocelebratethecomputer,wemustalsotread

withcaution.(42)Icallitasecretwarfortworeasons.First,mostpeopledonot

realisethattherearestrongcommercialagendasatworktokeeptheminpassive

consumptionmode.Second,themajorityofpeoplewhousenetworkedcomputersto

uploadarenotevenawareofthesignificanceofwhattheyaredoing.

Allanimalsdownload,butonlyafewupload.Beaversbuilddamsandbirds

makenests.Yetforthemostpart,theanimalkingdommovesthroughtheworld

downloading.Humansareuniqueintheircapacitytonotonlymaketoolsbutthen

turnaroundandusethemtocreatesuperfluousmaterialgoods-paintings,sculpture

andarchitecture-andsuperfluousexperiences-music,literature,religionand

philosophy.(43)

Forallthepossibilitiesofournewculturemachines,mostpeoplearestillstuck

indownloadmode.Evenaftertheadventofwidespreadsocialmedia,apyramidof

productionremains,withasmallnumberofpeopleuploadingmaterial,aslightly

largergroupcommentingonormodifyingthatcontent,andahugepercentage

remainingcontenttojustconsume.(44)

Televisionisaone-waytapflowingintoourhomes.Thehardesttaskthat

televisionasksofanyoneistoturnthepoweroffafterhehasturnediton.(45)

Whatcountsasmeaningfuluploading?Mydefinitionrevolvesaroundthe

conceptof"stickiness”-creationsandexperiencestowhichothersadhere.

[AJOfcourse,itispreciselythesesuperfluousthingsthatdefinehumanculture

andultimatelywhatitistobehuman.Downloadingandconsumingculturerequires

greatskills,butfailingtomovebeyonddownloadingistostriponeselfofadefining

constituentofhumanity.

[B]Applicationslike,whichallowuserstocombinepictures,

wordsandothermediaincreativewaysandthensharethem,havethepotentialto

addstickinessbyamusing,entertainingandenlighteningothers.

10考研英语真题

[CJNotonlydidtheydevelopsuchadevicebutbytheturnofthemillennium

theyhadalsomanagedtoembeditinaworldwidesystemaccessedbybillionsof

peopleeveryday.

[D]Thisisbecausethenetworkedcomputerhassparkedasecretwarbetween

downloadinganduploading-betweenpassiveconsumptionandactivecreation-

whoseoutcomewillshapeourcollectivefutureinwayswecanonlybeginto

imagine.

[E]Thechallengethecomputermountstotelevisionthusbearslittlesimilarity

tooneformatbeingreplacedbyanotherinthemannerofrecordplayersbeing

replacedbyCDplayers.

[F]Onereasonforthepersistenceofthispyramidofproductionisthatforthe

pasthalf-century,muchoftheworld'smediaculturehasbeendefinedbyasingle

medium-television-andtelevisionisdefinedbydownloading.

[GJThenetworkedcomputeroffersthefirstchancein50yearstoreversethe

flow,toencouragethoughtfuldownloadingand,evenmoreimportantly,meaningful

uploading.

PartC

Directions:

Readthefallowingtextcarefullyandthentranslatetheunderlinedsegments

intoChinese.YourtranslationshouldbewrittenclearlyonANSWERSHEET2.(10

points)

SincethedaysofAristotle,asearchforuniversalprincipleshascharacterizedthe

scientificenterprise.Insomeways,thisquestfbrcommonalitiesdefinesscience.

Newton9slawsofmotionandDarwinianevolutioneachbindahostofdifferent

phenomenaintoasingleexplicatoryframework.

(46)Inphysics,oneapproachtakesthisimpulseforunificationtoitsextreme,end

seeksatheoryofeverything-asinglegenerativeequationforallwesee.his

becominglessclear,however,thatsuchatheorywouldbeasimplification,giventhe

dimensionsanduniversesthatitmightentail,nonetheless,unificationofsortsremains

amajorgoal.

Thistendencyinthenaturalscienceshaslongbeenevidentinthesocialsciences

too.(47)Here,Darwinismseemstoofferjustificationforitallhumanssharecommon

originsitseemsreasonabletosupposethatculturaldiversitycouldalsobetracedto

moreconstrainedbeginnings.Justasthebewilderingvarietyofhumancourtship

ritualsmightallbeconsideredformsofsexualselection,perhapstheworld's

languages,music,socialandreligiouscustomsandevenhistoryaregovernedby

universalfeatures.(48)Tofilteroutwhatisuniquefromwhatissharedmightenable

ustounderstandhowcomplexculturalbehavioraroseandwhatguidesitin

evolutionaryorcognitiveterms.

That,atleast,isthehope.Butacomparativestudyoflinguistictraitspublished

onlinetodaysuppliesarealitycheck.RussellGrayattheUniversityofAucklandand

hiscolleaguesconsidertheevolutionofgrammarsinthelightoftwopreviousattempts

tofinduniversalityinlanguage.

ThemostfamousoftheseeffortswasinitiatedbyNoamChomsky,who

suggestedthathumansarebornwithaninnatelanguage—acquisitioncapacitythat

dictatesauniversalgrammar.Afewgenerativerulesarethensufficienttounfoldthe

entirefundamentalstructureofalanguage,whichiswhychildrencanlearnitso

quickly.

(49)Thesecond,byJoshuaGreenberg,takesamoreempiricalapproachto

universalityidentifyingtraits(particularlyinwordorder)sharedbymanylanguage

whichareconsideredtorepresentbiasesthatresultcognitiveconstraints

Grayandhis