大学英语重点grammar2

EnglishGrammarWelcometothiscourseCourseassessmentA.平时成绩

在总评成绩中所占比例为40%。一般为上课的出勤情况、学习的态度，课堂表现、平时作业和/或合（协）作精神等。B.期末考试:60%Requirements

Lecture1IntroductiontoEnglishGrammarStudy

I.学习英语语法的必要性1.英语语法的内涵

2.语法与语言学习和运用的关系以写作来说，同一个意思可以借助多种多样的语言形式来表达。如果写作者善于捕捉变体的机会，他就能最大限度地利用语言的表达潜力而不局限于陈规俗套和呆板句式，深刻体会到英语语法中五彩缤纷的选择余地（见下例），就意味着具备在写作中交替利用这些机会以达到不同修辞效果的强烈意识。1.ItisthefeelingofthePresidentthatthereareenormousresponsibilitieswhicharetobeassumedwithanofficeofpublictrust.←→ThePresidentfeelsthatagovernmenthasgreatresponsibilities…2.Doctorsofmedicineareofthesameopinionthatexcessiveconsumptionoffoodwillcausethedeteriorationofman’sphysicalconstitution.←→Overeating,thedoctorsagree,isharmfultohealth.3.Itwasn’tthatdifficult.Thetruthisthatwehadaball(slang).4.Itwon’tcostyouanarmandaleg.5.这一决策对增强信心、克服困难、稳定经济正发挥着积极重要的作用。3.外语学习4.现状II．语法教学的过程1.语法学习方法介绍

语法课旨在帮助学生唤起语法意识、梳理原有的知识，进一步介绍知识，指导学生进行归纳总结，进而对英语语法有一个系统的掌握，提高其语法运用的能力。2.呈现语言点这一方法旨在有意识地引导学生认识英语的某些特征。一般从学生熟悉的、可理解的材料入手，并逐渐过渡到不熟悉的形式。语法教学可用如下几个步骤进行。填充法(2)转换法主动→被动；限定句→非限定句；陈述句→倒装句→存在句(3)造句法(4)辨识法：找出特定的语言现象(5)讨论分析法本步骤旨在把潜意识的、零星的语法信息提升为有意识的、系统的能力。采用以老师为主导、以学生为中心的方法。(6)练习运用法1)口头方式2)综合方式综合方式包括转换练习、情景会话（roleplay）、合句练习（见下）等。WaldenPondisnowthesiteofmanytouriststands./Almosteverysummernightthecoolingnortheastwindsweptthroughourbedroomwindows.Itmadeairconditioningunnecessary.Itmadealightblanketwelcome.→WaldenPond,oncepraisedbyThoreauforitsnaturalbeauty,isnowthesiteofmanytouriststands./Almosteverysummernightthecoolingnortheastwindsweptthroughourbedroomwindows,makingairconditioningunnecessaryandalightblanketwelcome.(Sweepingthroughourbedroomsalmosteverysummernight,thecoolingnortheastwindmade…3.英汉比较吕叔湘先生曾经指出：“一种事物的特点，要跟别的事物比较才能显现出来。拿汉语和英语比较，汉语的特点和英语的特点就都显现出来了。这种比较，对于教学很有用。”通过比较，学习者知道在那些方面容易受到干扰，容易出错，从而帮助学习者使用英语，如翻译、写作等。例如：①Lookingoutofthewindow,thegrasslandstretchesasfarastheeyecanreach.②Onenteringtheclassroom,thestudentsstoodupandsaid,“Goodmorning,Sir.”③Shewasacceptednotbecausebutinspiteofherbirth.她不是因为她的出身而被接受，也非因为她的出身而被拒绝。④Itserveshimright.⑤Mr.Priestleyisgivinghisstudentsalesson.⑥JohnisnowwithhisparentsinNewYork;itisalreadythreeyearssincehewasabandmaster.(since从句中的过去式was是指一种状态的结束。)。。。他不再任乐队指挥已经三年了。（1）英汉相异之处请看下面一篇无多少生词的短文：DianeDisneyMillerrecallsasurprisingdiscoveryshemadeasachild:Ididn’trealizewhatmyfatherdidforalivinguntilIwassix.Thenaplaymateatschooltoldme.ThatnightwhenFathercamehome,hefloppeddownintohiseasychair.Iapproachedhimwithawe.Hedidn’tlookfamoustome.Iasked,“AreyouWaltDisney?”“YouknowIam,”hesaid.“TheWaltDisney?”Iinsisted.Helookedstartled;thenhegrinnedandnodded.WhereuponIsaidthefivewordshemusthavethoughthewassafefrominthebosomofhisfamily:“Pleasegivemeyourautograph.”再看名定实状之例：Youmustexcuseus,doctor,wehaveherinthekitchenwhereitiswarm.（2）语言意识：ANewPerspectiveonGrammarTeaching

Theroleofgrammariscontroversialinlanguagepedagogy.DifferentELTpractitionershavedifferentviewsonit.Grammarusedtobethemainfocusinthegrammar-translationmethodandtheaudio-lingualmethod.TheriseofCommunicativeLanguageTeachinghasreduceditsrolesincethe1970.Formanyyears,grammarhasbeenneglectedintheEnglishclassroom.

NowthependulumhasswungbackagainbecauseoftherecognitionoftheweaknessintheCommunicativeLanguageTeaching.Acallforgrammarasthe“theFacilitator”hasbeensuggested.Inotherwords,anewgrammarteachingapproachisneededtomakegrammarameanstolanguageacquisition.Inrecentyears,theAwareness-raisingapproachhasbeensuggestedasaninnovationonlanguageteaching.LanguageAwareness(LA)aimstodevelopaperson’ssensitivitytoandawarenessoflanguage,tounderstandhowlanguagerelatestothemostcentralactivitiesinourlifefromlearningtothinkingandtosocialrelationship,andtobuilduptheabilitytoviewalanguageobjectivelyasaphenomenon.LAmayactasabridgetobetterlanguagelearningandasaprerequisiteforefficientlanguagestudy.Inotherwords,LAisabletoserveasaprincipledprocessormechanismthatwillallowstudentstocapitalizeontheirknowledgeofEnglishforcommunicatingandlearningpurposes.Studentsareexpectedtodevelop:1)explicitandconsciousattentiontothesystematicorganizationoflanguage;2)explicitandconsciousknowledgeandskillsofthesourceoftheirexperienceoflanguage;3)powerfulobservationandanalysisoflanguage.CartersuggeststhatLAteachingneedstoinvolveatleast:1)awarenessofpropertiesoflanguageincludingitscreativityanddoublemeanings;2)awarenessoftheembeddingoflanguagewithinculture,thatis,tolearnaboutthelanguage,forexampleidiomsandmetaphorscanrevealalotabouttheculture;3)awarenessofthecloserelationshipbetweenlanguageandideology,thatis,toseehowdifferentlanguagechoicesencodedifferentideologies;4)agreaterself-consciousnessabouttheformsofthelanguageinuse,andtorecognizetherelationsbetweentheformsandmeaningofalanguage.TheAwareness-raisingapproachisdesignedtomakestudentsmoresensitivetogrammarinuse,moreactiveingrammarlearning;moreattentivetogrammaticalfeaturesinlanguageuse.（3）错误例示1）InspiteofthefrequentinterruptionImanagedtosticktotheprogram./Thelivelychatwaspunctuatedbyshoutsandlaughters.---burstsoflaughter/ItisonlyinrecentyearsthatChinalags--laggedbehind.2）Theteacherwouldbehappyifyoumadeprogress,whileyouwouldbecriticizedifyoudidn’t.3）Wehavealottocomplainandregret./Thisisagoodplacetoliveinandstudy.4）Thishopeofminewasnotrealizedatmygraduationfromtheuniversity.5）Ihopetomakesomeperceptibleprogressinthenextfiveyears,eachyearreachinganewgoal.1）对象错误：Wehavealargepopulationtorear.2）内涵错误：IhavegrownallergictousageofEnglish./ThenecessitywillcompelmetoraisetheChineselevel/Owingtomyfather,Ihadagoodpre-schooleducation.(4)语法教学的任务型设计1）语法化任务(grammaticalization)选取新闻标题，让学生理解并用一两句符合英语语法规则的完整句概括新闻内容作为新闻导语，然后让他们对照原新闻导语，分析比较两种版本的语法结构的异同。Good-lookingDoBetterinExams---TheSundayTimes,July9,2006→2）短文听写与重建3）句子组合改写任务：将一篇或一段简单句文字组合成复杂句，不改变原意。如《英语学习》2003.7一轻松读物名为TheUnfortunateThief。老师可先将其改为简单句：①Carllosthisjob.Hetriedtofindanotherone.Itwasn’teasy.Thepoorfellowcouldn’tpayhisbills.Hehadsolittlemoney.Hecouldn’taskanybodytolendhim.②Carlspenthisdaysathome.Helookedoutofthewindow.Hewatchedhisneighour’shouse.Anoldprofessorlivedtherealone.Henevertalkedtohisneighbours.Carlcouldseeintotheprofessor’shouse.Theprofessorneverdrewthecurtain.Theprofessor’sroomswerefullofantiquefurnitureandvases.4）短文改写5)发现法(5)任务式英语语法教学I.意义：Widdowson在AspectsofLanguageTeaching（1990）中指出，语法是协调词汇和语境的一种工具。Cullen在TeachingEnglishasaLiberatingForce一文中指出：语法可被视为一种交际资源。语言使用者采掘语法资源以表达其观念和态度，语言使用者对某种语法结构的使用属于个人选择。如：Carrdrewadistinctionbetweentwoquitedifferentandwarringphilosophicaltraditionswhichdominatededucationresearch.Pring,however,arguesthatsuchdichotomiesbetweenquantitativeandqualitativeresearchareafalsedualism.(6)总的原则：1）实用性2)规范性与发展性3)理论性与应用性4）专题性（解决陌生或疑难）我们认为，正确的做法是应该把对语法规则的讲解和培养学生的交际能力有机地结合起来，不能只停留在对语法规则的讲解上或只进行语言输入，不讲规则。Lecture2SentenceStructure

I.SubjectandpredicateGenerally,afull-fledgedsentence/clausefallsintotwoparts:thesubjectandthepredicate.1.Basicclausetypes:SVC,SV,SVA,SVO,SVOA,SVOC,SVoO.a.Thecarismine./Sheisingoodcondition./Theseflowerssmellfragrant.b.Ironrusts./Theguestshavearrived./Thepricesaregoingdown.c.Thetrainleavesatsix./HelivesinChongqing.d.HespeaksGermanquitewell.e.Icouldanswerthatquestion.f.Wemadehimourspokesman./Theyelectedhimpresident./Thedirectorsappointedhimsalesmanager.g.Marylentmeabook./Imademyselfacupoftea.II.Typesofsentences1.TheperiodicsentencesInmanyways,thehistoryofEnglishwordsisthehistoryofourcivilization.Accordingtonewspaperreports,afterwinningtheOlympicgoldmedalforfigureskating,shewasofferedaprofessionalcontract.2.Simple,Compound,ComplexandCompound-ComplexSentences1)Thesimplesentence---single-verbcombinationThemotherisdressingherbaby.Thepartyendedearly.Helosthiswalletlastweek.Thecitywasdestroyedbytheearthquake.RalphandLindaaresittingunderthetree.Heisreadingandwritingatthesametime.Mary,Luwella,andMikelubricatedmycar,replacedtheoilfilter,andcleanedthesparkplugs.2)Thecompoundsentence-----MADEupoftwoormoresimplesentences,usuallyconnectedbyacommaplusajoiningword(and,but,for,or,nor,so,yet)Theheavyrainstartedsuddenly,sowestoppedplantingourtrees.Frankwantedtogoswimming,butMarydecidedtogoshopping.JaneworksintheFamilyPlanningClinicandherhusbandSmithdoesresearchworkforthesameunit.3)Thecomplexsentence---MADEupofasimplesentenceandastatementthatbeginswithadependentword.Oneideaistoputmoreemphasisononethanonanother.BecauseIforgotthetime,Imissedtheplay.WhileSuzanwaseatingthefish,shebegantofeelsick.Icheckedmypaperagainbefore…WhenCindylosthertemper,shealsolosthermanner.Although…4)Thecompound-complexsentence---MADEupoftwoormoresimplesentencesandone(ormore)dependentstatements.Inthefollowingexamples,asolidlineisunderthedependentstatement.Whenthepowerlinesnapped,Jackwaslisteningtothestereo,andLindawasreadinginbed.AfterIreturnedtoschoolfollowingalongillness,themathteachermademedrophercourse.Pre-studyExercise:Itseemsthecattleonthesidesofthedykes(was,were)theonlylivingcreaturesinthesedesolatesurroundings.Themilitia(was,were)calledouttoguardtheborderland.Theaudience(is,are)listeningtoaBeethovensymphony.TheBoardofDirectors(is,are)shaking(its,their)headsattheChairman’sspeech.Thepoultry(was,were)imported.Alotofmachinery(was,were)madebythemselves.Thepoultry(is,were)keptinthebackyard.Thepublic(was,were)convincedofhisinnocence.Lecture3Subject-verbConcordI.Guidingprinciples:Therearethreeprinciplesguidingsubject-verbconcord,whichareprinciplesofgrammaticalconcord,notionalconcordandproximity.1.Grammaticalconcord:It,asamajorprinciple,referstotherulethattheverbmustmatchitssubjectinnumber,eg:Bothboyshavetheirownmerits./Everygirlcomesontime./Mucheffortiswasted.2.Notionalconcord:Itreferstotherulethattheverbcansometimesagreewiththesubjectaccordingtothenotionofnumberratherthantotheactualpresenceofthegrammaticalmarkerforthatnotion,eg:Thegovernmenthaveaskedthecountrytodecidebyavote./Fifteenmilesseemslikealongwalktome.3.Proximity:Itdenotesagreementoftheverbwithaclose-lyprecedingnounphraseinpreferencetoagreementwiththeheadofthenounphrasethatfunctionsassubject,eg:Eithermybrothersormyfatheriscoming./Nooneexcepthisownsupportersagreewithhim./NeitherJulianorIamgoing.4.Troublemakers4.1.1Diseaseandgamenamesendingin–s:Namesofdiseasesendingin–saremostlytreatedassingular,butthereareafewsuchnamessuchasmeasles,arthritis,mumps,bronchitis,diabetesandrickets

thatcanbeusedeitherassingular(moreoften)orasplural.Gamenamesendingin–saregenerallyusedassingularwiththeexceptionofcardswhichareusuallytreatedasplural.4.1.2Subjectnamesendingin–ics:Namesofsubjectsendingin–icsaregenerallysingularnouns,butsomeofwhicharetreatedaspluralwhenusedinothersensesthansubjectnames,eg:

Acousticsisthescienceofsound.←→Theacousticsinthenewconcerthallarefaultless./Theeconomicsisarequiredcourseforallthestudents.←→Theeconomicsoftheprojectarestillbeingconsidered.4.1.3Geographicalnamesendingin–s:Geographicalnamessuchasthenamesofcountries,mountainranges,straitsandfallsaregenerallyusedasaplural,exceptforafewtreatedassingularwhenusedascountrynames,eg:TheHimalayashaveamagnificentvarietyofplantandanimallife./TheTaiwanStraightsarepeaceful,whichisablessingforthepeopleacrossthethem./InearlyJanuary1976,theNetherlandswashitbyitsworststormsince19Othernounsendingin–s:Namesforthingsmadeoftwopartssuchasscissors,pincers钳子,shorts,etcareusuallyusedasplural.Butwhentheyareprecededbysuchunitnounsasapairofandtwopairsof,thenumberformofthefollowingverbisgenerallydeterminedbythenumbermarkeroftheunitnoun.Nounsusuallytakingpluralendingssuchasarchives,arms,clothesandfireworksaregenerallyusedaspluralwiththeexceptionofwhereabouts,dramatics,etcwhichmaybetreatedeitheraspluralorassingular.Nounsendingin–ingssuchasclippings,diggings,etc,aregenerallyusedaspluralwiththeexceptionoftidingswhichcanbeusedbothways.Therearealsonounssuchasbarracks,headquartersandmeanswhosesingularandpluralnumbersharethesameform.Thesenounsaretreatedaspluralwhenusedinthepluralsense,orviceversa.4.2Collectivenounsassubject4.2.1Collectivenounsusedasplurallikepeople,police,cattle,militia,poultry,vermin,etc.Domesticcattleprovideuswithmilk,beefandhides.4.2.4Inspecialslikeacommitteeof/aboardof/apanelof,theverbusuallytakesthesingularform,eg:Theboardofdirectorsisresponsibleforthemanagementofthecompany.4.2.2Collectivenounsusuallyusedassingularlikemachinery,equipment,furniture,merchandise,etc.4.2.3Collectivenounsusedeitheraspluralorassingularlikeaudience,class,family,etc.Theanti-crimecommitteeistomakeareporttomorrow.←→Thecommitteearedividedinopinionaboutthisproblem.4.2.4Inspecialslikeacommitteeof/aboardof/apanelof,theverbusuallytakesthesingularform,eg:Theboardofdirectorsisresponsibleforthemanagementofthecompany.

主谓不一致现象透视I.正式用法：1.深层同一：Hiswarmestadmirerandseverestcriticwashiswife.→←Hiswifewashiswarmestadmirerandseverestcritic.//Hisagedservantandthesubsequenteditorofhiscollectedpaperswas/werewithhimathisdeath-bed.2.不同成分的混合体：Whiskyandsodaismyfavouritedrink.→←Myfavouritedrinkiswhiskyandsoda.3.复数概念：Whatmakeseachdivisiondifferentareafewsimplethings---time,place,traditionandleadership.→←Afewsimplethings---time,place,traditionandleadership,arewhatmakeseachdivisiondifferent./Thegovernmenthavebrokentheirpromises./Thisgroupplaceconsiderableemphasisonthecontextualnatureoflearning,anddonotdrawgeneralizationsfromthephenomenaobservedtothepopulationatlarge.4.整体概念：Fivedollarsistoomuchtopayforabookinthatcondition./Threemonthspassesinnotimeatallonsuchatour./Seniorcitizensmeans,incommonparlance,peopleoversixty./Acarandabicycleisabsolutelynecessary.5.1+1=1：Everysegmentofourpopulationandeveryindividualhasarighttoexpectfromhisgovernmentafairdeal---HarryTruman6.假朋友：Inalmosteverygroup,politicsisacontroversialsubject.→←Radicalpolitics(policies)wereoffensivetotheFederalists./Theauthor’spoliticshavealsobeenresponsibleforhiscurrentexile./TheCedars(thecouple)hasahugegarden.7.Hisfamily,whoaregreatmusicians,haveallreceivedtheireducationinParis.→←Hisfamily,whichisaverydistinguishedone,cantraceitshistorybacktotheMiddleAges.II.非正式用法：1.复数概念：Neitherradionortelevisionprovideadequatenewscoverage./JohnandMarywillhavetowalk,neitherofthemhaveboughttheircars./Neitherhenorhiswifehavethefaintestideaofwhatliesbeyondit./Everyone,includingDr.HattahimselfandPravdaandtheNewYorkTimes,agreeonourpoint.2.虚位主语（常由here,there,where等引导）：Here’sJohnandMary./There’ssomechildrenatthedoor./Offtobed,there’sgoodchildren.3.伪就近原则：Thoseboys---oneorotherofthemhaveleftthedooropen./AnoutstandingfeatureofallDepartmentsaremanwell-supportedpostgraduatecourses.4.随便文体：There’stwopatientsinthewaitingroom.Lecture5NounsandNounPhrasesI.Classificationofnounsandfunctionofnounphrases1.Classification---simple,compoundandderivativenouns;Properandcommonnouns;Countandnoncountnouns2.Functionofnounphrases---subject,subjectcomplement,object,objectcomplement,appositive,prepositionalcomplementation,adverbial(Ireturnedlastnight.),conjunction(Aphotoistakeneachtimethisbuttonispushed.)3.NumberformsofnounsLecture6DeterminersDeterminersincludearticles,possessivedeterminers,genitivenouns,demonstrativedeterminers,relativedeterminers,interrogativedeterminers,indefinitedeterminers,cardinalandordinalnumerals,fractionalandmultiplicativenumerals,andotherquantifiers.2.1Collocationsbetweendeterminersandnouns2.1.1Determinerswithallthreeclasses(singularcountnouns,pluralcountnounsandnon-countnouns)ofnouns:possessive,genitive,definitearticlesaswellassome,any,no,theother,andwhose.2.1.2Determinerswithsingularcountnounsonly—a(n),one,another,each,every,either,neither,manya,sucha2.1.3Determinerssuchascanonlycollocatewithpluralcountnounsonly---both,two,three,etc,anothertwo/three,many,(a)few,several,these,those,a(great)numberof2.1.4Determinerswithnon-countnounsonly---alittle,abit,agreatamountof,agreatdealof,much,less,least2.1.5Determinerswithsingularandpluralcountnounsonly:thefirst,thesecond,thelast,thenext2.1.6Determinerswithsingularandnon-countnounsonly:this,that2.1.7Determinerswithpluralandnoncountnounsonly:alotof,plentyof,enough,most,such,other2.2Collocationsbetweendeterminers2.2.1Centraldeterminers,predeterminersandpostdeterminersArticles,demonstrativedeterminers,possessivedeterminers,genitivenouns;some,any,no,every,each,either,neither,enough;what(ever),which(ever),whose,etc.Theyaremutuallyexclusive.All,both,half,double,twice,threetimes,etc;one-third,two-fifths,etc.what,such.Theyarealsomutuallyexclusive.

Many,much,few,little,fewer,less,more(andtheirsuperlativeform),several,plentyof,alotof,agreat/large/goodnumberof,agreat/gooddealof,alarge/smallamountof;such.2.2.2Wordorderofthreesubclassesofdeterminers:predeterminer+centraldeterminer+postdeterminer:allthefourstudents/alltheselastfewdays/bothhistwosisters/bothhisparents/hislastfewwords/threeothergirls

Multiplechoice:determiners1.Isaw___boysatthecinema.a.thebothb.halfac.boththed.theseveral2.___candidatesaregirls.

a.Halftheb.Thehalfc.Theirhalfd.Halfa3.Hewasonleave___days.a.thefewlastb.fewanotherc.fewotherd.thelastfew4.Pleaseserveme___soup.a.moresomeb.thelessc.morethed.somemore5.___factorsshouldbeconsidered.a.Theseallb.Suchallc.Allsuchd.Somethese6.Theyarenotlikelytoagreeto___propositions.a.otheranyb.otherallc.allotherd.otherthese7.Hehasbeenstayingathome___days.a.thesealllastfewb.theselastfewallc.alltheselastfewd.theselastallfewLecture6Determiners(II)--Articles

Lecture7VerbsandVerbPhrasesIClassificationofverbs1.Mainverbsandauxiliaries(primary,modalandsemi-auxiliaries)2.Transitive,intransitiveandlinkingverbs3.Dynamicandstativeverbs(be,have,applyto,belongto,differfrom,cost,weigh,measure,fit,hold,lack,resemble;assume,believe,consider,detest,fear,hate,hope,imagine,know,like,love,mean,mind,notice,prefer,regret,remember,suppose,think,understand,want,wish)4.Single-wordverbsandphrasalverbsPhrasalverbsfallintothreecategories：Verb+preposition;Verb+adverbparticle(breakout);Verb+adverbparticle+preposition(comedownwith)5.Finiteverbsandnon-finiteverbs6.RegularandirregularverbsII.Asurveyoftense,aspect,voiceandmood1.Tenseandaspect:Tenseisagrammaticalformassociatedwithverbsthattellsoftime;thatistosay,tenseandtimeareatoncerelatedanddifferent.Timeisauniversalconceptwiththreedivisions:past,presentandfuturetime.Aspectasagrammaticaltermindicateswhetheranactionorstateatagiventimeisviewedascompleteorincomplete.Englishverbshavetwoaspects:theprogressiveandtheperfectiveaspects.汉语语法学者对时态和时间的表述时间是人类共有的概念，分为过去、现在和将来三段。“共有”意指超出语言范畴(extra-linguistic)，不依赖任何语言而存在。因此，时间属于人类的思维范畴，而时态才属于语法范畴。//（时态是语法范畴，不同的语言有不同的时态系统；时间是独立于语言的概念，具有普遍性。2.Activevoiceandpassivevoice3.Indicativemood,imperativemoodandsubjunctivemoodIII.Usesoftenseandaspect1.Simplepresent:timelesspresent;habitualpresent;futurepresent(hope,bet,seetoit,makesure,ifclause);2.Simplepast:pasteventandpasthabit;attitudinalandhypotheticalpast3.Presentprogressive:actioninprogress;futurehappening;othermeanings4.Pastprogressive:actioninprogressinthepasttime(includingpasthabitualactionorfuturityinthepast);othermeanings5.Presentperfective6.Pastperfective(includingsentenceswithwhen-/before-/after-until-/since-clauses)Perfectiveaspectisoftenaccompaniedbyasince-phraseorasince-clausetodenoteacontinuousstateoractivityfromapointinthepasttimeuntilnow.Theverbiscommonlythesimplepastofadynamicverbdenotingnon-continuousactivity.Ifthemainverbinthesuperordinateclauseisintheformof“Itbe+complement(denotingatimespan)+since-clause”,theverbbeinthemainclausemayoccurinthesimplepresentinplaceofthepresentperfective,eg:It’sthreemonthssincehewrotetome.Sometimes,however,theverbinthesince-clausemaybethesimplepastofadynamicverbofcontinuousactivityorthatofastativeverb,inwhichcasethetimespandenotedbythesince-clauseisdifferentfromtheordinarycases,generallyreferringtotheendorcompletionofthatcontinuousactivityorstate.Ifweusethiskindofverbinthesince-clauseandmeantosaythatthecontinuousactivityorstateextendsuptothepresentmoment,wewillhavetousethepresentperfectiveinsteadofthesimplepast.Compare:HehaswrittentomefrequentlysinceIwasill.(I’mnotillnow.)HehaswrittentomefrequentlysinceIhavebeenill.(I’mstillillnow.)IV.Sinceclause1.Shehasn’twrittentoherhusbandsinceheleftBeijing./IhavenworkedinthatfactorysinceIcametothiscity./I’vebeenwaitingsincetheplanelanded.2.IhavenotseenhimsincehelivedinShanghai./Theyhaven’tseeneachothersincetheywereinthesamearmyunit.(持续动词，肯定意义)3.IhavebeenatschoolsinceIhavebeenill.肯定意义（生病以来）→←IhavebeenatschoolsinceIwasill.（我病愈后）4.IhavelivedinthisoldhouseeversinceIwasborn.(打我出生来)5.Itisfivemonthssinceshecameback.=Shecameback5monthsago.→←Itis5monthssinceshestayedhere.=Shelefthere5monthsago.V.Meansofexpressingfuturetime1.Constructionsdenotingfuturetime:will/shall+infinitive;will/shall+progressive/perfectiveinfinitive;begoingto+infinitive;presentprogressive;beto+infinitive;simplepresent2.Constructionsdenotingpastfuture:would+infinitive;was/weregoingto+infinitive;was/wereto+infinitive;pastprogressiveandsimplepast;was/wereboutto+infinitive

Lecture8DisconcordofTenseandAspect

I.英语时态不一致现象及其语篇类型1.Icouldn’tbelieveit!Justaswearrived,upcomesBenandslapsmeinthebackasifwe’relife-longfriends.“Comeon,oldpal,”hesays,“Letmebyyouadrink!”I’mtellingyou,Inearlyfaintedonthespot.(historicalpresent)2.IhaveafriendwhowasatschoolwithKissinger.(pastsetting)3.Theyhavedecidedtoclosedownthefactory.Ittookuscompletelybysurprise.4.Therewerenootherapplicants,Ibelieve,forthatjob.5.Therearefewmoderncities,however,thatwerecreatedoutofnothing.Theywerebuiltstrictlybythebookwormsaccordingtodetailedplansthatwillalsocontrolfuturegrowth.6.Well,then,supposemyauto-repairmandevisedquestionsforanintelligencetest.Orsupposeacarpenterdid,orafarmer,or,indeed,almostanyonebutanacademician.Byeveryoneofthosetests,I’dprovemyselfamoron(低能成人).AndI’dbeamoron,too.InaworldwhereIcouldnotusemyacademictrainingandmyverbaltalentsbuthadtodosomethingintricateorhard,workingwithmyhands,Iwoulddopoorly(subjuntive).Myintelligence,thenisnotabsolute.ItsworthisdeterminedbythesocietyIlivein…7.Thesesentenceswould(possibility)alsobeacceptablewiththesimplepastorpresentperfective;buttheimplicationofthepresenttenseseemstobethatalthoughthecommunicationeventtookplaceinthepast,itsresult---theinformationcommunicated---isstilloperative.8.TheLafayettestudentsshooktheirheads.Somebodymustbeplaying(highepistemic)ajokeonthem.9.SamtoldmelastnightthatheisnowanAmerican./Ididn’tknowthatourmeetingisnextTuesday.10.Theirteacherhadtoldthemthattheearthmovesaroundthesun./Shesaidthatpersistencecanovercomeallobstacles.(fact)11.IfonlyIhadmoretime./IfIknewhername,Iwouldtellyou./I’dratheryouhadgivenmeanewone.(wish)II.分析1.英语时体“化实为虚”与“化虚为实”的表意功能在叙事写景和表达情意时，人们往往发生认知的迁移，“错位”使用时态，以求不同的修辞效果和语用意义。比如在描述往事时，人们为突出其“真实逼真”性，常打破常规，将现在时映射到过去。RobertSilverburg(1979)在描述Pompeii城的悲惨命运时，一直使用过去时。如：TheTragedyStruckon24thofAugust,A.D.79…Centuriespassed,…Pompeiiwasforgotten.”接着，为了再现该城昔日的风光，作者突然进行时态的转换，把“一般现在时”映射到过去。如：⑴TogotoPompeiitodayistotakeatripbackwardintime.Theoldcitycomestolifeallarou