2015年3月28日雅思阅读考情回顾

雅思阅读机经一、考试时间：2015328日（周六）Johnson’sDictionaryTheReturnofArtificialInligencePlaceboEffect，安慰剂效应。2010710多次，可参照剑八第一套第三篇epathyTheNatureofGenius以及剑九第二套第三篇ANeuroscientistRevealsHowtoThinkDifferently等文章。Passage1:TheHistoryofButton，纽扣发展史。Passage2:沙漠里昆虫的仿生技术。Passage3:PlaceboEffectTheHistoryTheHistoryofButton题型分布与判断题58个1-5 NOT6-13 TheHistoryoftheOver3,000yearsago,duringtheBronzeAge,thefirstbuttonsmadetheirdebut.Whilerecognisablybuttons,BronzeAgemandidn'tfastenanythingwiththem,butsimplyworethemfordecoration.Thedandiesofthedayworebuttonsfashionedfrombone,horn,wood,metalorevenseass;but,intheabsenceofabuttonhole,weretheyanythingmorethanjustsew-onbrooches?Atthetime,manusedbelts,pinsorbroochestofastenhisclothes;eveninextremeweathertherewasnopracticaluseforabutton.Sothebuttonjustexisted,waitingforthenextbigclothinginnovation.TheGreeks,althoughtheyhadnowordforbutton,did,liketheRomans,usethemfordecoration.However,atsomepoint,someonethoughtthebuttonmightmakeaniftyfastener.Tothisend,theyranthebuttonthroughalittleloopofthreadandtherebycreatedauseforthebutton,alongsidethepinorthebrooch,tokeepgarmentstogether.Asclothingbecamemorefitted,thebuttonandloopbecamemoreattractivesinceitwaslesslikelytocauseinjurythanapin.Byaround1200,thebuttonandbuttonholearrivedinEurope,delivered,likemanyotherthings,bythereturningCrusaders.Notthattheyinventeditthemselves—no,theyhad'freed'theideafromtheTurksandMongolsencounteredontheirtravels.Atanyrate,thebuttonandbuttonholewere eadrivingforceinclothingdesign.Thefirstbuttonholeswereslitsmadeinfabricjustbigenoughtopassbuttonthrough,andthiswasenoughtoholdclothesfastandinspireafashionrevolution.ThewordbuttonappearedataroundthistimeandstemsfromeithertheFrenchboutonforbudorboutertopush.Whateverthebasisfortheword,theFrenchwerequicktospotthepotentialofthebuttonandby1250hadestablishedtheButtonMakersGuild.TheGuildproducedbeautifulbuttonswithgreatartistry,muchtothedelightofthearistocracy.Thepeasants,however,weren'tallowedtojointhisbuttonfest,eveniftheycouldaffordit.Thearistocracypassedlawstolimitbuttonspermittedforcommonusagetothread-orcloth-coveredbuttons.Asaresult,thebuttonbecameastatussymbol,anditwasn'tdiscrete;buttonswerebeingusedliketherewasnotomorrow-notjustforfasteningclothesbut,oncemore,asadornment.Bythemiddleofthe1300sbuttonswerebigbusinessandpeoplelovedthem.Tailorsproducedgarmentswithrowuponrowofbuttonswithmatchingbuttonholes.France,bythistime,wasthebuttoncapitalofEuropeandtheGuildmadeconsiderableprofitproducingbuttonsforcoats,dressesandanythingthatlookedasifitneededabutton.EuropewassobuttoncrazythateventheChurchgotinontheactanddenouncedthemas'thedevil'ssnare',seeminglyreferringtotheladiesintheirbutton-fronteddresses.Thisattractionforbuttonsresultedinsomeoutfitsadornedwiththousandsofbuttons,allofthemwith panyingbuttonholes.Dressingandundressingbecameachore,butcreatedanichefortheemploymentofprofessionaldressers.Buttonmaniaranonunabated,andin1520reportslofameetingwhereKingFrancisIofFrance,hisclothingbedeckedwithsome13,600buttons,metKingHenryVIIIofEngland,similarlyweigheddownwithbuttons.Thebuttonthingcouldn'tlastforeverthough,andwiththePuritanscondemningitassinful,inthe16thCenturyitspopularitybegantotomoresensiblelevels1.That'snottosaytheyweren'tstillverymuchinvogue;it'sjustthatthenumberofbuttonsrequiredtobeattheheightoffashiondiminished.Inresponsetothis,thebutton-makerstooktomakingmoreandmoreelaboratebuttons.Theseartisansmadetheirfancybuttonsfrompreciousmaterialslikegold,ivoryandevendiamond.Diamondswouldseemmorethanalittleexcessiveforbuttons,butin1620theFirstDukeofBuckinghamreputedlyhadasuitandcloakcoveredindiamondbuttons,althoughmostwerepurelydecorative.Noteveryone,however,couldaffordsuchalavishdisplay,sobutton-makersalsousedsilver,ceramicsandsilk.Evenartistsofthedayfilledtheirtimehand-paintingportraitsorsceneryonbuttons.LouisXIVadoredhisbuttonsandreturnedtotheexcessesofpreviousages,buthealsoencouragedothersbyhavinghisarmywearsilver-colouredbonebuttonsontheirtunics.Ifyouareinanydoubtastotheimportanceofbuttonsinthe17thCenturyyoucoulddoworsethancheckoutlaGuerredesBoutons—notthefilm,buttheactualwar.Frenchtailorsstartedthewarandwonthefirstbattlewiththeuseofthreadbuttons.Thesewerebasicallylittleballsofthreadwhichworkedadmirablyasbuttons.Thebutton-makerswerefurious,andinresponsetheylobbiedtheernmenttohelpthem.Alawwaspassedandthewarwaswonwiththetailorsbeingfinedfortheproductionofthethreadbuttons.Notsatisfiedwiththis,however,thebutton-makerswentontoinsistontherigorousenforcementofthenewlaw.Theywantedhomesandwardrobessearchedandevensuggestedthearrestandfiningofpeopleforwearingclothingwiththreadbuttons.Itisunclearhowfartheygotwiththeirdemands,beyondtheauthoritiesfiningthetailorsfortheiringenuity.AroundthistimetheUnitedKingdom,AmericaandGermanymusclinginontheFrenchButton-makers'Guild'slucrativemarket.Towardstheendofthe1700sbigmetallicbuttonswereinvogueandresultedinuniformsandoutfitsneedingfewer.Italsosawtheintroduction,apparentlybyNapoleon,ofsleevebuttonsontunics2.Thisdidn't,however,haltthedevelopmentofthedouble-breastedjacket.Thesejacketsweremuchlikethechef'sjacketoftoday.Whentheoutsideofthejacketwassoiledthewearerjusthadtounbuttonitandplacethesoiledsurfaceontheinsidethenbuttonthecleansideoutermost.Nowthatispractical.Fromthe19thCenturybuttonsweremass-produced,butthisdidn'tdetractfromthewidevarietyavailable;Dorsetbuttons,madefromthread,competedside-by-sidewithboneandmetalbuttons.Thefashion-consciousstillprizedbuttonsandbrassorceramicbuttonsweresoldboxedandinsetstobeaffixedtouniformsorotherclothing.Everyhomekeptabuttonboxwhichheldreclaimedbuttonsfromdiscardedgarments,alongwithoddbuttonssuitableforcompletingrepairs.Noentryaboutthebuttonwouldbecompletewithoutanhonorablementionforthewhitepearlbutton.AshipmentfromJapanfloodedthebuttonmarketwiththistypeofbuttoninthe1860s,andthisdirectlyresultedintheriseofthePearlyKingsandQueensofLondon.Visitorstothecitycouldexpecttoseetheselocalcelebritiessportingcostumesbearingover30,000buttons,althoughtodaytheyaregenerallyonlyseenatcharitableevents.Themostpopularbuttonofthe19thCentury,however,wastheblackglassbutton,whichwasmainlypearl-shaped.ThiswasmadeforthemassesinresponsetoQueenVictoria'susageofblackjetbuttons-mourningbuttons-followingthedeathofPrinceAlbert.Bytheturnofthe20thCentury,pictureandnoveltybuttonswereverymuchthefashion.Theynolongerneededtobehand-paintedwhentheycouldhavescenesprintedontothem,sohuntingorotherdelightswerepopularforwaistcoats.Moldingproducedbuttonsinallshapesandfromthelittlefox'sheadtotheWellingtonbootorindeedaanditwasperhapsthisthatbeganthetrendforcollectingbuttonsfortheirownsake.Withtheintroductionofplastics,buttonsweren'tquitesoprecious.However,sincethearrivalofthesewingmachineandpatternsforthethriftydressmaker,theyprovidedthefinishingtoucheswhiledressingonabudget.Manyhomesstillhavebuttonboxes,butwithtoday'sbusylifestylefewpeopletakethetimetosewbuttonsonanything-eventhoughmostgarmentscomewithaspare.Todaybuttons,likeclothing,comeinallshapesandsizes.Therearethebasiccircular,squareortriangularbuttons.Thebuttonswithtwo,threeorfourholesforapplication,thetogglebutton,leathershafttypeorstudbuttons.Therearemanybuttoncollectorsclubs,andindeedthewinnerofthe2005AntiquesRoadshowCollectoroftheYearwasAnneBlight,achampionbuttoncollector-confirmingamarketforbuttonscontinuestoThefutureofthebuttonseemssecuredespitethepopularityofvelcro,poppers3andzips.Thiscouldbeduetothefactthatwhateveryou'refastening,itjustlooksbetterwiththeflourishofabutton.Oritcouldjustbethatthebuttonandbuttonholeareperfectfortheirjob.Nomatterwhat,thebuttonhascontinuedtothrivealongsidethevariousalternatives,andregardlessofwhatsciencefictionwouldhaveuswearing,thebuttonseemscertaintosurvive.Justincaseitdoesn't,however,thereisalwaysanonlinebuttonmuseum.题型分布与题型分布与45414-17 18-2223-26 BIRDBirdshavemanyuniquedesignfeaturesthatenablethemtoperformsuchamazingfeatsofendurance.Theyareequippedwithlightweight,hollowbones,intricaydesignedfeathersprovidingbothliftandthrustforrapidflight,navigationsystemssuperiortoanythatmanhasdeveloped,andaningeniousheatconservingdesignthat,amongotherthings,concentratesallbloodcirculationbeneathlayersofwarm,waterproofplumage,leavingthemfittofacelifeintheharshestofclimates.Theirrespiratorysystemshavetoperformefficientlyduringsustainedflightsataltitude,sotheyhaveasystemofextractingoxygenfromtheirlungsthatfarexceedsthatofanyotheranimal.Duringthelaterstagesofthesummerbreedingseason,whenfoodisplentiful,theirbodiesareabletoaccumulateconsiderablelayersoffat,inordertoprovidesufficientenergyfortheirlongmigratoryflights.Thefundamentalreasonthatbirdsmigrateistofindadequatefoodthewintermonthswhenitisinshortsupply.ThisparticularlyappliestobirdsthatbreedinthetemperateandArcticregionsoftheNorthernHemisphere,wherefoodisabundantduringtheshortgrowingseason.Manyspeciescantoleratecoldtemperaturesiffoodisplentiful,butwhenfoodisnotavailabletheymustmigrate.However,intriguingquestionsOnepuzzlingfactisthatmanybirdsjourneymuchfurtherthanwouldbenecessaryjusttofindfoodandgoodweather.Nobodyknows,forinstance,whyBritishswallows,whichcouldpresumablysurviveequallywelliftheyspentthewinterinequatorialAfrica,insteadflyseveralthousandsoffurthertotheirpreferredwinterhomeinSouthAfrica’sCapeProvince.Anothermysteryinvolvesthehugemigrationsperformedbyarcticternsandmudflat-feedingshorebirdthatbreedclosetoPolarRegions.Ingeneral,thefurthersouthitspendsthewinter.Forarcticternsthisnecessitatesanannualroundtripof25,000 .Yet,enroutetotheirfinaldestinationinfar-flungsouthernlatitudes,alltheseindividuals otherareasofseeminglysuitablehabitatspanningtwohemispheres.Whilewemaynotfullyunderstandbird’sreasonsfortoparticularplaces,wecanmarvelattheirOneofthegreatestmysteriesishowyoungbirdsknowhowtofindthetraditionalwinteringareaswithoutparentalguidance.Veryfewadultsmigratewithjuvenilesintow,andyoungstersmayevenhavelittleornoinklingoftheirparent’sappearance.Afamiliarexampleisthatofthecuckoo,whichlaysitseggsinanotherspecies’nestandneverencountersitsyoungagain.Itismindbogglingtoconsiderthat,onceraisedbyitshostspecies,theyoungcuckoomakesitownwaytoancestralwinteringgroundsinthetropicsbeforereturningsingle-handedlytonorthernEuropethenextseasontoseekoutamateamongitsownkind.Theobviousimplicationisthatitinheritsfromitsparentsaninbuiltroutemapanddirection-findingcapability,aswellasamentalimageofwhatanothercuckoolookslike.YetnobodyhastheslightestideaastohowthisMountingevidencehasconfirmedthatbirdsusethepositionsofthesunandstarstoobtaincompassdirections.Theyseemalsotobeabletodetecttheearth’smagneticfield,probablyduetohavingminutecrystalsofmagnetiteintheregionoftheirbrains.However,truenavigationalsorequiresanawarenessofpositionandtime,especiallywhenlost.Experimentshaveshownthatafterbeingtakenthousandsof overanunfamiliarlandmass,birdsarestillcapableofreturningrapidlytonestsites.Suchphenomenalpowersaretheproductofcomputinganumberofsophisticatedcues,includinganinbornmapofthenightskyandthepulloftheearth’smagneticfield.Howthebirdsusetheir‘instruments’remainsunknown,butonethingisclear:theyseetheworldwithasuperiorsensoryperceptiontoours.Mostsmallbirdsmigrateatnightandtaketheirdirectionfromthepositionofthesettingsun.However,aswellasseeingthesungodown,theyalsoseemtoseetheplaneofpolarizedlightcausedbyit,whichcalibratestheircompass.Travelingatnightprovidesotherbenefits.Daytimepredatorsareavoidedandthedangerofdehydrationduetoflyingforlongperiodsinwarm,sunlitskiesisreduced.Furthermore,atnighttheairisgenerallycoolandlessturbulentandsoconducivetosustained,stableflight.Nevertheless,alljourneysinvolveconsiderablerisk,andpartoftheskillinarrivingsafelyissettingoffattherighttime.Thismeansaccurateweatherforecasting,andutilizingfavorablewinds.Birdsareadeptatboth,and,inlaboratorytests,somehavebeenshowntodetecttheminutedifferenceinbarometricpressurebetweenthefloorandceilingofaroom.Oftenbirdsreacttoweatherchangesbeforethereisanyvisiblesignofthem.Lapwings.Whichfeedongrassland,fleewestfromtheNetherlandstotheBritishIsles,FranceandSpainattheonsetofacoldsnap.Whenthegroundsurfacefreezesthebirdscouldstarve.YettheyreturntoHollandaheadofathaw,theirarrivallinkedtoapressurechangepresaginganimprovementintheweather.InoneinstanceaWelshManxshearwatercarriedtoAmericaandwasbackinitsburrowonSkokholmIsland,offthePembrokeshirecoast,onedaybeforealetterannouncingitsrelease!Conversely,eachautumnasmallnumberofNorthAmericanbirdsareblownacrosstheAtlanticbyfast-movingwesterlytailwinds.NotonlydotheyarrivesafelyinEurope,but,basedonringingevidence,somemakeitbacktoNorthAmericathefollowingspring,afterprobablyspendingtwinterwithmigrantsinsunnyAfrican题型分布与配对题53627-31 32-34 35-40 NOT NOT PlaceboEffect---ThePowerofWanttodeviseanewformofalternativemedicine?Noproblem.Here’stherecipe.Bewarm,sympathetic,reassuringandenthusiastic.Yourtreatmentshouldinvolvephysicalcontact,andeachsessionwithyourpatientsshouldlastatleasthalfanhour.Encourageyourpatientstotakeanactivepartintheirtreatmentandunderstandhowtheirdisordersrelatetotherestoftheirlives.lthemthattheirownbodiespossessthetruepowertoheal.Makethempayyououtoftheirownpochets.Describeyourtreatmentinfamiliarwords,butembroideredwithahintofmysticism:energyfields,energyflows,energyblocks,meridians,forces,auras,rhythmsandthelike.Refertotheknowledgeofanearlierage:wisdomcarelesslysweptasidebytheriseandriseofblind,mechanisticscience.Oh,comeoffit,you’resaying.Somethinginventedoffthetopofyourheadcouldn’tpossiblywork,couldit?Wellyes,itcould—andoftenwellenoughtoearnyoualiving.Agoodlivingifyouaresufficientlyconvincingor,betterstill,reallybelieveinyourtherapy.Manyillnessesgetbetterontheirown,soifyouareluckyandadministeryourtreatmentatjusttherighttimeyou’llgetthecredit.Butthat’sonlypartofit.Someoftheimprovementreallywouldbedowntoyou.Notnecessarilybecauseyou’d mendedginsengratherthanchamoteaorusedthiscrystalasopposedtothatpressurepoint.Nothingsospecific.Yourhealingpowerwouldbethe eofaparadoxicalforcethatconventionalmedicinerecognizesbutremainsoddlyambivalentabout:theplaceboeffect.Placebosaretreatmentsthathavenodirecteffectonthebody,yetstillworkbecausethepatienthasfaithintheirpowertoheal.Mostoftenthetermreferstoadummypill,butitappliesjustasmuchtoanydeviceorprocedure,fromastickingplastertoacrystaltoanoperation.Theexistenceoftheplaceboeffectimpliesthatevenquackerymayconferrealbenefits,whichiswhyanymentionofplaceboisabouchysubjectformanypractitionersofcomplementaryandalternativemedicine(CAM),whoarelikelytoregarditastantamounttoachargeofcharlatanism.fact,theplaceboeffectisapowerfulpartofallmedicalcare,orthodoxotherwise,thoughitsroleisoftenneglectedandOneofthegreatstrengthsofCAMmaybeitspractioners’skillindeployingtheplaceboeffectto plishrealhealing.“Complementarypractitionersare betteratproducingnon-specificeffectsandgoodtherapeuticrelationships,”saysEdzardErnst,professorofCAMatUniversity.ThequestioniswhetherCAMcouldbeintegratedintoconventionalmedicine,assomewouldlike,withoutlosingmuchofthisAtonelevel,itshouldcomeasnosurprisethatourstateofmindcaninfluenceourphysiology:angeropensthesuperficialbloodvesselsoftheface;sadnesspumpsthetearglands.Butexactlyhowplacebosworktheirmedicalmagicisstilllargelyunknown.Mostofthescantresearchtodatehasfocusedonthecontrolofpain,becauseit’soneofthecommonestcomplaintsandlendsitselftoexperimentalstudy.Here,attentionhasturnedtotheendorphins,naturalcounterpartsofmorphinethatknowntohelpcontrolpain.“Anyoftheneurochemicalsinvolvedtransmittingpainimpulsesormodulatingthemmightalsobeinvolvedingeneratingtheplaceboresponse,”saysDonPrice,anoralsurgeonattheUniversityofFloridawhostudiestheplaceboeffectindentalpain.“Butendorphinsarestilloutinfront.”ThatcasehasbeenbytherecentworkofFabrizioBendeettioftheUniversityofTurin,whoshowedthattheplaceboeffectcanbeabolishedbyadrug,naloxone,whichblockstheeffectsofendorphins.Benedettiinducedpaininhumanvolunteersbyinflatingablood-pressurecuffontheforearm.Hedidthisseveraltimesadayforseveraldays,usingmorphineeachtimetocontrolthepain.On