语言学-discourse-analysis知识讲解

Chapter7DiscourseAnalysis

语篇分析(fēnxī)第一页，共80页。Majorcontents

1.Discourseanddiscourseanalysis2.Informationstructure3.Cohesionandcoherence4.Discoursemarkers5.Conversationalanalysis6.Criticalanalysis第二页，共80页。1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisDiscourseLanguageabovethesentenceorabovetheclause.(Stubbs,1983:1)Textlinguistics/discourseanalysiswrittenspokenUsedinterchangeablynow第三页，共80页。1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisDiscourseanalysisDiscourselinguistics/discoursestudies/textanalysisThestudyofhowsentencesinspokenandwrittenlanguageformlargermeaningfulunitssuchasparagraphs,conversations,interviews,etc.p168第四页，共80页。1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisLanguageinusePragmatics:meaningDiscourseanalysis:informationstructureMostpowerfulinstrument:FunctionalSystemicGrammar第五页，共80页。1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisFertilizersputbackwhattherainandplantstakeaway.Plasticpotsarenotjustsubstitutesforclayones.Pearsarealittlemoretemperamentalthanapples.Supportingandtrainingarenotquitethesamething.

×第六页，共80页。1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisPickupahandfulofsoilinyourgarden.Ordinary,unexcitingearth.YetitisoneofNature’smiracles,andoneofhermostcomplexproducts.Yoursuccessasagardenerwilllargelydependuponitscondition,sotakethefirstboldstepingardening---gettoknowyoursoil.

√第七页，共80页。1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisAprimarytaskofDAistoexplorethelinguisticfeatureswhichcharacterizediscourse.ThegoalofDAistoexaminehowreaderoruserofadiscourserecognizesthatpartsofadiscoursearedependentonothers.Oneofthemostimportantfeaturesofdiscourseiscohesion(衔接(xiánjiē))第八页，共80页。1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysisTopicsofDA:Informationstructure(信息结构)Cohesion(衔接(xiánjiē))Coherence(连贯)Discoursemakers(话语标记语)Conversationalanalysis(会话分析)第九页，共80页。2InformationStructureHowdolanguageusersarrangeinformationwithindiscourse?2.1GivenandnewinformationAlice:Whoatethebread?Tom:Maryatethebread.Giveninformation:knowntotheaddresseeNewinformation:unknowntotheaddressee.第十页，共80页。2.1GivenandnewinformationGiveninformationcanbeintroducedbyonespeakeralone:Amancalledwhileyouwereonyourbreak.Hesaidhe’dcallbacklater.Giveninformationcanbesomethingcloselyrelatedtothementionedinformation(e.g.meronymy)（部分-整体(zhěngtǐ)关系）Kentreturnedmycarlastnightafterborrowingitfortheday.Oneofthewheelswasabouttofalloffandthedashboardwasmissing.第十一页，共80页。2.1GivenandnewinformationFormsofN/Ginformation:New-informationcarriersusuallyreceivemorestress,andtheyarecommonlymoreelaborated,e.g.withafullnounphrase,relativeclauseoradjectivalmodifier(s).E.g.WhenIenteredtheroom,therewasatallmanwithanold-fashionedhaton,quiteelegantlydressed.第十二页，共80页。2.1GivenandnewinformationGiveninformationisexpressedinshorterforms(pronouns/unstressednounphrase/omitted):A:Whoatetheapple?B:Marydid./Mary.第十三页，共80页。2.2Topicandcomment

话题(huàtí)和述题Topic话题(huàtí):whattheutteranceisabout.Comment述题:whatissaidaboutthetopic.Topicistheelementofasentencethatfunctionsasthecenterofattention.Topicisusuallythesubject,nounphrase.Maryatethebread.第十四页，共80页。2.2TopicandcommentOtherelementscantaketheroletoo.Aftertea,willyoutellmeastory.MarkthetopicPlacetopicintheinitialpositioninEnglish.Abeautifuldressshedidmake.Topicisnotnecessarilyapropertyofthesentence;itmaybeapropertyofthediscoursecontext:Oh,look!第十五页，共80页。2.2TopicandcommentTopic-commentvs.given-newinformationGiven-newinformation:thepointofviewofthelistener.Topic-commentrelatestothatofthespeaker.Thegivenelementisthatwhichthespeakerpresentsasalreadybeingknowntothelistener.Thetopicelementrepresentswhattheutteranceisabout.第十六页，共80页。2.2TopicandcommentGiveninformationisnotalwaysthetopic.Maryatethebread.Asforherlittlesister,shedranktheCoca-Cola.

new/topic

Peterdidn’tbelieveanythingthecharlatansaid.AsforMary,shebelievedeverythinghesaid.

given/comment第十七页，共80页。2.2TopicandcommentTopic-commentvs.rheme-themeRheme-theme:sentenceTopic-comment:discourseRheme-theme:concretesentencestructure(linguisticform)Topic-comment:abstractinformationstructureMike'shousewassocomfortableandwarm!Hereallydidn'twanttoleave,buthecouldn'taffordtherent,youknow.Andithadsuchanicegardenintheback!第十八页，共80页。2.2TopicandcommentTopicsarenotsoimportanttothegrammarofEnglish.ThereisonlyonegrammaticalstructurewhichmarkstopicsinEnglish.Asforme,I’mgonnagotobed.Otherlanguageshavespecialformstomarkthetopic(Japanese,Korean)Chinesemarkstopicsbywordorder:作业(zuòyè)终于做完了！第十九页，共80页。2.2TopicandcommentInEnglish,markingthetopicofasentenceisfarlessimportantthanmarkingthesubject.Therearespecialformstoindicatethesubject:Shelooksathim.第二十页，共80页。2.3Contrast对比(duìbǐ)Contrast:anounphraseoccursinoppositiontoanothernounphraseinthediscourse.contrastiveA:DidTomseetheghost?B:No,Johndid.B:Yes,Tomsawtheghost.第二十一页，共80页。2.3Contrast对比(duìbǐ)Oneoutstandingfromalliscontrastedwiththewhole:Ofeveryonepresent,onlyPeterknewwhatwasgoingon.Adeleknewwhatwasgoingon,andPeterknewwhatwasgoingon.Contrastisalsomarkedinsentencesthatexpressthenarrowingdownofachoicefromseveralcandidatestoone.第二十二页，共80页。2.3Contrast对比(duìbǐ)Testforcontrast:Ifanounphrasecanbefollowedby“ratherthan”,itiscontrastive:A:DidTomseetheghost?B:No,John,ratherthanTom,sawtheghost.B:No,Tomseetheangle,ratherthan

theghost.第二十三页，共80页。2.3Contrast对比(duìbǐ)Asinglesentencecanhaveseveralcontrastivenounphrases:A:DidTomseeaghost?B:Yes,Tomsawaghost,butJohnsawanentirecastofspirits.Contrastisobservedfromthediscoursecontextorsituationalcontext.MarylikesgoingtoMaineduringthewinter.第二十四页，共80页。2.3Contrast对比(duìbǐ)Employee:CanIleaveearlytoday?Manager:Idon’tmind.InEnglish,contrastivenounphrasecanbemarkedbypronouncingitwithstrongstress:Youmaybesmart,buthe’sgood-looking.第二十五页，共80页。3.CohesionandCoherence

衔接(xiánjiē)&连贯Howsentencesarecombinetoformtexts?It’spracticallyimpossibletorestrainchildrenwhentheygettogripswithtechnology.Whichiswhythecomputerequipmentusedinschoolshastobedesignedandbuildtoastandardaboveandbeyondthenormalcallofduty.Astandardthat’ssetbyResearchMachines.第二十六页，共80页。3.CohesionandCoherenceWhichiswhythecomputerequipmentusedinschoolshastobedesignedandbuilttoastandardaboveandbeyondthenormalcallofduty.It’spracticallyimpossibletorestrainchildrenwhentheygettogripswithtechnology.Astandardthat’ssetbyResearchMachines.第二十七页，共80页。3.CohesionandCoherence3.1Cohesion衔接(xiánjiē)Thegrammaticaland/orlexicalrelationshipsbetweenthedifferentelements(sentencesorsegments)ofadiscourse.Cohesivedevices衔接(xiánjiē)手段Acoherentdiscoursehascertainwordsandexpressionsinitwhichlinkthesentencestogether.Reference,substitution,ellipsis,conjunctionandlexicalcohesion.第二十八页，共80页。3.1CohesionAcoherentdiscoursearesentenceslinkedclosely.A:IsJanehere?B:No,sheisn’t.Youcanleadahorsetowaterbutyoucan’tmakehimdrink.Howsentencesareexplicitlylinkedtogetherinadiscourse?第二十九页，共80页。3.1.1Reference参照(cānzhào)/照应Referencewords:pronouns(it,they..),demonstratives(this,that…),thedefinitearticle(the)anditemslikesuchas.e.g.Thereisahouseneartheriver.ThatisJohn’s.Ididn’tknowitwashis.第三十页，共80页。3.1.1Reference参照(cānzhào)/照应Twotypesofreference:endophora内参照(cānzhào):theinterpretivesourceliesintheco-text.exophora外参照(cānzhào):theinterpretivesourceliesinthecontext.e.g.(Maryisstandinghere)Ilikeher.第三十一页，共80页。Endophora(内参照(cānzhào)):anaphora回指:thereferentliesinthepriortext.e.g.Lookatthedog,itisdancing!cataphora后指:thereferentliesinthefollowingtext.e.g.WhenImether,Marylookedill.第三十二页，共80页。Typesofreferenceanaphora回指endophoraReference内参照(cānzhào)cataphora后指指称exophora外参照(cānzhào)第三十三页，共80页。3.1.2Substitution替代(tìdài)Theprocessorresultofreplacingonewordbyanotherataparticularpositioninastructure.A:I’velostmydictionary.(substituted)B:Getanewone.(substitute)ThreetypesofsubstitutionNominalsubstitution(toreplaceanounornounphrase)Verbalsubstitution(toreplaceaverbphrase)Clausalsubstitution(toreplaceaclause)第三十四页，共80页。Referencevs.SubstitutionReferenceisarelationonsemanticlevel.Noun–pronoun/nounphraseJack–himAgroupofstudents–thosestudentsSubstitutionisarelationonthelexico-grammaticallevel,arelationbetweenwordsandconstructions,andtheyhavesamefunction.newwatch---newone.第三十五页，共80页。Referencevs.SubstitutionAsrelationbetweenmeanings,referencecanbeanaphoric,cataphoricandexophoric.Substitutionisarelationwithintext,themajorityofsubstitutionarehighlydependingonthelinguisticcontext,anditmainlyhappensinthelatertext.第三十六页，共80页。3.1.3Ellipsis省略(shěnglüè)Leavingoutaconstructionofasentenceforreasonsofeconomy,emphasisorstyle,andtheomittedpartscanonlyberecoveredbythereaderfromthepreviousdiscourse.SubstitutionbyzeroDoyoulikeit?No,Idon’t(likeit).Subtypes:Nominal,verbalandclausalellipsis第三十七页，共80页。3.1.4Conjunction连词(liáncí)Anitemoraprocesswhoseprimaryfunctionistoconnectwordsorotherconstruction.Iwasnotinvited.Otherwise,Iwouldhavebeenthere.coordinator并列连词(and,but…)subordinator从属连词(because,when)conjunctiveadverbs连接(liánjiē)副词(however,indeed…)Ifyoudogood,goodwillbedonetoyou;butifyoudoevil,thesamewillbemeasuredbacktoyou.Therefore,let’sdogood.第三十八页，共80页。Lexicalcohesioniscohesionthroughtheuseofwords,i.e.thewriterorspeakerrelatesthetextconsistentlytoitsareaoffocusthroughtheselectionoflexicalitems.repetition重复(chóngfù)Threetypes:synonym同义词collocation上义词3.1.5Lexicalcohesion词汇(cíhuì)衔接第三十九页，共80页。Repetition:repeatthesamewords,orgeneralnouns,orotherwordssharingthemajorityofsemanticfeatures.Thedonkeydied;thepoorcreaturehasworkedhardallhislife.Superodinate:thesameword,synonymornear-synonym,superordinate,generalwords,collocation.Iwatchedafootballgamelastnight,andbecameveryupsetwhentherefereepulledout3redcardsinaminute.第四十页，共80页。Repetitionoflexicalitems.Arepeateditemmaybearepetitionofanearlieritem,asynonymornear-synonym,asuperordinate,orageneralword.

Thereisaboyplayingwithfire.Theboyisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn’ttakecare.(repetition)Theladisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn’ttakecare.(synonym)

Thechildisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn’ttakecare.(superordinate)Theidiotisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn’ttakecare.(generalword)第四十一页，共80页。Collocation搭配(dāpèi)：thetendencyofcertainlexicalitemstoco-occur.AlittlefatmanofBombayWassmokingoneveryhotdayButabirdcalledasnipeFlewawaywithhispipeWhichvexed（生气的）thefatmanofBombay第四十二页，共80页。3.2Coherence连贯(liánguàn)Interestinglyenough,theuseofcohesivedevicesalonemaynotproducetextsthat“makesense”.Considerthefollowingpassage:e.g.IboughtaFord.AcarinwhichPresidentWilsonrodedowntheChampsElysees(香榭丽舍大街)wasBlack.BlackEnglishhasbeenwidelydiscussed.Thediscussionbetweenthepresidentsendedlastweek.Aweekhassevendays.EverydayIfeedmycat.Catshavefourlegs.Thecatisonthemat.Mathasthreeletters.第四十三页，共80页。从前(cóngqián)有座山，山上有座庙，庙里有个老和尚，老和尚在和小和尚讲故事:从前(cóngqián)有座山……第四十四页，共80页。Coherence:therelationshipswhichlinkthemeaningsofutterancesinadiscourseorofthesentencesintext.Itconcernspeople’sabilitytomatchthetextwiththeirexperienceortheirunderstandingoftheword.Ifastretchofalanguageisinlinewithsomeexperienceortheir“commonsense”,itwillberecognizedasameaningfultext.

第四十五页，共80页。Coherenceissthunderlyingthetext---semanticconnections,logicalconnectionsortemporalsequence.Itiscreatedbyourreallifeknowledge.Cohesionistheverbalrealizationofcoherenceintheformofcohesivedevices.Asweseeinthelastsamplepassage.第四十六页，共80页。(50)Student:I’velostmybunchofkeys!Roommate:It’safinedaytoday.Student:Soyou’vegotafreedinner.(p197)第四十七页，共80页。GeorgestudiedlawinCambridge.Andheisnowalawyer.GeorgestudiedlawinCambridge.Heisnowalawyer.Theabsenceoftheconjunctions“and”inthesecondsentencedoesnotaffectcoherenceatall.Weknowfromourexperiencethatbeingalawyerisalikelyoutcomeofstudyinglaw.Insummary,therecanbenomeaningcohesionwithoutcoherence,butcoherencewithoutcohesionmaybeperfectlypossible.第四十八页，共80页。7.4Discoursemarkers

话语(huàyǔ)标记语Whatisthedefinitionofdiscoursemarkers?Howmanytypesofdiscoursemarkerarethere?第四十九页，共80页。discoursemarkers(DM):expressionsthatarecommonlyusedintheinitialpositionofanutteranceandaresyntacticallydetachablefromasentence.

conversationalparticles:well

andohparentheticallexicalizedclauses:y’know,Imeanandyousee,connectiveelementsso,afterall,andmoreover.第五十页，共80页。Themainroleofdiscoursemarkers:toguidespeaker’sinterpretationsoftheutterances.ThefeaturesofDMs:DMsseemtoclarifyatext’sstructuralrelationsforthereader.Despiteanydifferencesintheiruseindifferenttypesofdiscourse,theseitemsshareanumberofformalandtextualfeatures.第五十一页，共80页。

7.5ConversationalanalysisTheanalysisofnaturalconversationinordertodiscoverwhatthelinguisticcharacteristicsofconversationareandhowconversationisusedinordinarylife

iscalledconversationalanalysis(CA).第五十二页，共80页。ThreemechanismsinCAadjacencypairs(相邻语对)preferencestructure(首选结构(jiégòu))presequences(前序列)Itincludesthestudyofhowspeakersdecidewhentospeakduringaconversation,howtheutterancesoftwoormorespeakersarerelated,andthedifferentfunctionsthatconversationisusedfor.第五十三页，共80页。7.5.1Adjacencypairs相邻(xiānɡlín)语对Certainturnshavespecificfollow-upturns.Questionstakeanswers.Greetingsarereturnedbygreetings,invitationsbyacceptancesorrefusals,andsoon.Suchsequencesofturnsarecalledadjacencypairs:asequenceoftworelatedutterancesbytwodifferentspeakers.

Thesecondutteranceisalwaysaresponsetothefirst.第五十四页，共80页。

(56)A:Youleftthelighton.B:Itwasn’tme!thesequenceofcomplaint-denialisanadjacencypair.第五十五页，共80页。Adjacencypairshavefiveproperties:Adjacencypairsconsistoftwoutterances,afirstpartandasecondpart.Thetwopartsarespokenbydifferentspeakers.Thefirstandsecondpartsbelongtospecifictypes,forexample,questionandanswer,orgreetingandgreeting.第五十六页，共80页。Theformandcontentofthesecondpartdependsonthetypeofthefirstpart.Giventhataspeakerhasproducedafirstpart,thesecondpartisrelevantand expectableasthenextutterance.第五十七页，共80页。Adjacencypairscomeinmanytypesquestion-answergreeting-greetinginvitation-acceptance/non-acceptanceoffer-acceptance/non-acceptancecomplaint-apology/denialsummons传唤(chuánhuàn)-responseassertion-assent赞成request-acceptancepromise-acknowledgementthanks-acknowledgementgoodbye-goodbye.第五十八页，共80页。

However,notallfirstpartsimmediatelyreceivetheirsecondparts.

Itoftenhappensthataquestion-answer(Q-A)sequencewillbedelayedwhileanotherquestion-answersequenceintervenes.ThesequencewillthentaketheformofQ1-Q2-A2-A1,withthemiddlepair(Q2-A2)beingcalledaninsertionsequence插入语列.第五十九页，共80页。(57)Agent:Doyouwanttheearlyflight! (=Q1)Client:Whattimedoesitarrive? (=Q2)Agent:Nineforty-five. (=A2)Client:Yeah—that’sgreat. (=A1)第六十页，共80页。Aninsertionsequenceisoneadjacencypairwithinanother.Inprinciple,thenumberofinsertionsequencescanbeinfinite,butthelimitofhumanmemorydoesnotallowthat.Threeorfourinsertionsequencesarecommon.第六十一页，共80页。(58)A:AreyoucomingtoourpartyTuesdayevening? (Q1)B:CanIbringafriendalong? (Q2)A:Maleorfemale?(Q3)B:Whatdoesthatmatter? (Q4)A:Justamatterofbalance. (A4)B:Male. (A3)A:Okey. (A2)B:I’llbetherethen. (A1)第六十二页，共80页。Ex:1)Son:CanIwatchTV,Dad?Father:Haveyoufinishedyourhomework?Son:No.Father:Thenyoucan’t.Inthisexample,thefatherdelayshisanswertohisson’squestionuntilhehascheckedifthenecessaryconditionexists.第六十三页，共80页。2)A:Couldyoulendmeafewbucks?

B:Whatfor?

A:IneedtotakeatriptoSanFranciscotoseemygirlfriend.B:Howmuchdoyouwant?A:Well…uh…50dollarsisok.B:Whenareyougonnareturn?

A:NextMonday.B:Allright.Waitforme.I’llberightback.第六十四页，共80页。7.5.2Preferencestructure

首选(shǒuxuǎn)结构Anadjacencypairmayhavedifferentsecondparts.Forexample,aquestioncanbefollowedbya)aquestion,b)byapartialanswer,c)byastatementofignorance,d)byadenialoftherelevanceofthequestionore)byadenialofitspresupposition:第六十五页，共80页。(59)A:WhatdoesJoedoforaliving?B:a.Doyouneedtoknow?b.Oh,thisandthat.c.I’venoidea.d.What’sthatgottodowithit?e.Hedoesn’t.第六十六页，共80页。Preferencestructuredividessecondpartsintopreferredanddispreferred.Thepreferredisthestructurallyexpectednextactandthedispreferredisthestructurallyunexpectednextact.Thepreferredsecondpartsaremoreusual,morenormalandlessspecific.第六十七页，共80页。(60)A:Haveyougotalight?B:Yes.(61)A:Haveyougotalight?B:No,sorry.Idon’tsmoke.B’sreplyin(60)ispreferredanddispreferredin(61):第六十八页，共80页。7.5.3Presequences前序列(xùliè)(63)Jeff:Mornin’,Stan!Stan:Hi.How’sitgoin’?Jeff:Oh,can’tcomplain,Iguess.Readyforthemeetingthisafternoon? Stan:Well,Idon’thavemuchchoice! 第六十九页，共80页。Greetingsexemplifyopeningsequences,utterancesthateasepeopleintoaconversation.Theyconveythemessage“Iwanttotalktoyou”.Theopeningsequencesthatareusedtosetupsomespecificpotentialactionsarecalledpresequences.

第七十页，共80页。Greetingsareusuallyreservedforacquaintanceswhohavenotseeneachotherforawhile,oraspresequencesforlonger