语言学提纲复习资料

复习提纲（40分）：1.thescopeoflinguistics语言学的研究范畴Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.(普通语言学)Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalledphonetics.（语音学）Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.（音系学）Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalledmorphology.（形态学）Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax.（句法学）Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.（语义学）Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.（语用学）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsocio-linguistics.（社会语言学）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycho-linguistics.（心理语言学）Thestudyofapplications(astherecoveryofspeechability)isgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics.（应用语言学）Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguage.Otherrelatedbranchesincludeanthropologicallinguistics,（人类语言学）neurologicallinguistics,（神经语言学）mathematicallinguistics,（数字语言学）andcomputationallinguistics.（计算机语言学）2.thedifferenceoflanguageandlinguisticstructure3.designfeaturesoflanguageDesignfeatures语言的甄别性特征Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.AmericanlinguistCharlesHockettspecifiedtwelvedesignfeatures,fiveofwhichwillbediscussedhere.Arbitrariness语言的随意性Arbitrarinessmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Itisnotentirelyarbitrary.Example:differentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.Productivity语言的创造性Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.Duality语言的二重性Thedualitynatureoflanguagemeansthatlanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeaning.Displacement语言的移位性Displacementmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Culturaltransmission语言的文化传递性Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,i.e.,wewerebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnedanew.Thisindicatesthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Itispasseddownfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.4.someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptiveanddescriptive规定与描写Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive,ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar.Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhilemodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.Thetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whetheritis“correct”ornot.Synchronicanddiachronic共时和历时Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyismoreimportant.Speechandwriting口头语与书面语Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,butnotthewrittenform.Reasonsare:1.Speechprecedeswriting;2.Therearestillmanylanguagesthathaveonlythespokenform;3.Intermsoffunction,thespokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalargerloadofcommunicationthanthewritten.Langueandparole语言和言语TheSwisslinguistF.deSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20thcentury.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.Competenceandperformance语言能力和语言运用ProposedbyAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.Hedefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Hebelievesthetaskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifythelanguagerules.5.therelationshipbetweenlanguageandspeech:theyaredoubtlesscloselylinkedandeachpresupposestheother语言与言语的区别（sq不确定是不是这样翻译，只找到中文的）这两个概念是索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中提出的。索绪尔认为：我们首先应该在口头交际活动或者说从语言活动这样的社会现象中区分出两个因素，也就是“语言”和“言语”；语言等于“言语活动”减去言语；语言是使一个人能够理解和被人理解的全部语言习惯。即，语言是言语活动中社会成员约定俗成共同使用的部分，是均质的，是言语活动的社会部分；言语则具有个人特色，因为每个人说话的嗓音、每个音的具体发音、每个人使用的词语和句子结构等方面都具有个人的特色，而且每个人每一次说话都是不同的，这些都是言语现象和言语要素，不属于全社会约定俗成的语言。简单的说，语言是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的，有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分。语言是一个抽象的实体，是从言语活动中抽象出来的全社会约定俗成的均质系统，而在抽象过程中，就必须把所有的个人要素或个人杂质全排除出去。但，言语是很难找到规律的。它们的联系在于：一方面，语言是从言语中概括出来的词语和规则的总和。语言存在于言语当中，言语是语言的存在形式。没有言语就无所谓语言。另一方面，言语是个人说的行为和结果。也就是说，言语总是以语言为活动基础的，语言在言语中起着规范作用。区分语言和言语有重大历史意义。正如索绪尔所说：把语言和言语分开，我们一下子就把（1）什么是社会的，什么是个人的；（2）什么是主要的，什么是从属的和多少是偶然的分开了。因此，语言、言语概念的提出，明确了语言学的研究对象问题，这在历史比较语言学大行其道的阶段是具有跨时代意义的。语言学的对象应该限于有内在一致规律并且成系统的语言，而排除无规律可循的言语因素。这样，语言学才能成为一门真正的现代意义上的科学。至于跟言语活动有关部分的其他各种因素，不是不重要，也不是不需要研究，只是不属于语言的本体部分，可以另行研究。6.internalandexternalelementsofalanguage7.threebranchesofphonetics语音学的三个分支Therearethreebranchesofphonetics.Theyare:①Articulatoryphonetics（发音语音学）,itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthespeaker’spointofview.Itstudieshowaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds.②Auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学），itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthehearer’spointofview.Itstudieshowthesoundsareperceivedbyhehearer.③Acousticphonetics（声学语音学），itstudiesthespeechsoundsbylookingatthesoundwaves.Itstudiesthephysicalmeansbywhichspeechsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.8.phonetics&phonologyPhonologyandphonetics音系学和语音学Bothphonologyandphoneticsarestudiesofspeechsounds.Phoneticsisofageneralnature,itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;Phonologyisinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage,itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Thusthesetwoareatoncerelatedanddistinctbranchesoflinguisticstudies.语音学研究人类所有的语言。音系学研究某种特定语言的语音系统。Example:单词leap和peel中的[l]音有清晰音和模糊音之分，但音的不同对意义的表达并无关联。所以，如果从语音学角度来说，这是两个不同的语音，而从音系学角度来说，这是同一基本实体的两个变体。音系学家对不引起意义区别的语音间的细微区别并不关注，但语音学家却要对所有的语音进行描述，不论它们之间的差别对表达意义有没有关系。9.phone,phoneme,allophone语音（音素）、音位、音位变体Phonecanbesimplydefinedasthespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.语音是语言学研究的单位，是一个个具体的声音。语音是一个语音单位或一个切分成分，它并不一定能区分意义。Phonologyisconcernedwiththespeechsoundswhichdistinguishmeaning.Thebasicunitinphonologyiscalledphoneme,itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Butitisanabstractunit.Aphonemeisnotasound,itisacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.音位是音系学研究的单位，是抽象的概念，每一个音位是一组语音特征的集合体，音位具有区别意义的作用。一个音位在语音上被具体体现为一个特定的语音（音素）。按照惯例，音位被置于两斜线之间，如/p//t/，而语音被置于方括号内，如[p][t].Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.音位变体是一个音位在特定的语音环境里的具体体现，同一个音位在不同的语音环境里体现为不同的变体，也就是语音。10.phonemiccontrast,complementarydistributionandminimalpair音位对立、互补分布、最小对立对Phoneticallysimilarsoundsmightberelatedintwoways.Theymightformacontrastiftheyaretwodistinctivephonemes,ortheydonotformacontrastinmeaningiftheyareallophonesofthesamephoneme.相似的语音之间可能有两种关系。两个相似的语音如果是两个区别性音位，它们在意义上形成对立，如果是同一音位的变体，在意思上不形成对立。Theformeriscalledphonemiccontrast,theycanoccurinthesameenvironmentsandtheydistinguishmeaning.音位对立是指不同音位之间的关系，它们可以出现在不同的语音组合的同一位置，产生意义差别，如rope和robe中的/p/和/b/。Thelatteriscalledcomplementarydistribution;theyaretwoallophonesofthesamephoneme.Theyonlyoccurindifferentenvironments.互补分布是指音位变体之间的关系，同一个音位的不同变体在语音组合中永远不会出现在相同的位置上，它们没有区别意义的作用，如top中的送气的[p]和stop中不送气的[p]。Abasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanotheroneresultsinachangeofmeaning.Ifitdoes,thetwosoundsthenrepresentdifferentphonemes.Aneasywaytodothisistofindtheminimalpairs.确定一种语言的音位的一个基本途径是，看如果用一个语音代替另一个是否会产生不同的意义。如果产生了，那么这两个语音就代表不同的音位。为此，一个简单的办法就是找出最小对立对。Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.最小对立对是指除了出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合，如[pen]和[ben]。11.Sequentialrules,Assimalationrule,Deletionrule几条音系规则:系列规则,同化规则,省略规则sequentialrules系列规则Therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguagearecalledsequentialrules.在一种特定的语言中，语音的组合是受规则制约的，这些规则叫做系列规则。重要的规则：如果单词以[l]或[r]为首，其后的一个语音必定为元音，如rude,last,leap如果三个辅音同时出现在单词词首，则：第一音位必定为/s/，第二音位必定是/p//t//k/，第三音位必定是/l//r//w/，如strict,splendid,spring塞擦音[tF][dV]和咝音[s][z][F][V]后不能紧跟另一个咝音，如teach变复数为teaches[ti:tFiz]。制约音位模式的规则是随语言的不同而不同的，英语中适用，其它语言却不适用。assimilationrules同化规则Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.同化规则即通过“模仿”一个系列音位的一个特征使一个语音与另一个语音相似，从而使两个音素变得相似。重要的规则：元音后紧跟一个鼻音时，该元音要鼻音话。如bean/green中的[i:]音。在一个单词中，鼻音[n]所处的发音部位和紧随其后的辅音的发音部位变得一样。如correct–incorrect。语音同化规则也体现在有关单词的拼写中。如possible的否定形式是impossible，是因为[n]音同化成了[m]音。deletionrules省略规则Theruletellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.省略规则告诉我们什么时候一个语音尽管在拼写中存在，但在发音中却省略了。重要的规则：如[g]音出现在位于词尾的一个鼻辅音前时要省略。如sign中的[g]音不发音。而在加了后缀的signature中，[g]却要发音的。12.suprasegmentalfeatures:stress,tone,intonation超切分特征：重音、声调和语调Distinctivefeaturescanalsobefoundrunningoverasequenceoftwoormorephonemicsegments.Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonation,andtone.区别性特征也可以在由两个或多个音位切分成分所组成的系列中体现出来。出现在切分层面之上的音系特征叫做超切分特征。它们时音节、单词和句子等语言单位的音系特征。主要的超切分特征包括重音、音调和语调。Stress重音重要的规则：一个单词如果既可以作名词，又可以作动词，则名词重音在第一个音节上，相应的动词重音则在第二个音节上。如import。英语复合词的重音常在第一个成分上，第二个成分是次重音。如hotdog。Tone声调英语不是声调语言，这里不作研究。Intonation语调Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.当音高、重音和音长依附于一个句子而不是单个单词时，这些音素合起来叫做语调。Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risetone,andtherise-falltone.Themostfrequentlyusedarethefirstthree.英语中有四种基本语调：降调、升调、降升调、升降调。最常用的是前三种。13.thedifferencebetweenroot,stemandbase词根,词干,词基的区别答案一：（来源百度文库）Root:

A

root

is

that

part

of

the

word

left

when

all

the

affixes(inflectional

and

derivational)

are

removed

,e.g.

“desire”

in

“desirable”.

Stem:

A

stem

is

part

of

a

word-form

which

remains

when

all

inflectional

affixes

have

been

removed,

e.g.

“undesirable”

in

“undesirables”.

Base:

A

base

is

any

form

to

which

affixes

of

any

kind

can

be

added

.This

means

any

stem

and

root

can

be

termed

as

a

base

.答案二：（来源于国外问答网站）‘Root’,‘stem’and‘base’arealltermsusedintheliteraturetodesignatethatpartofawordthatremainswhenallaffixeshavebeenremoved.Arootisaformwhichisnotfurtheranalysable,eitherintermsofderivationalorinflectionalmorphology.Itisthatpartofword-formthatremainswhenallinflectionalandderivationalaffixeshavebeenremoved.Arootisthebasicpartalwayspresentinalexeme.Intheform‘untouchables’therootis‘touch’,towhichfirstthesuffix‘-able’,thentheprefix‘un-‘andfinallythesuffix‘-s’havebeenadded.Inacompoundwordlike‘wheelchair’therearetworoots,‘wheel’and‘chair’.Astemisofconcernonlywhendealingwithinflectionalmorphology.Intheform‘untouchables’thestemis‘untouchable’,althoughintheform‘touched’thestemis‘touch’;intheform‘wheelchairs’thestemis‘wheelchair’,eventhoughthestemcontainstworoots.Abaseisanyformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded.Thismeansthatanyrootoranystemcanbetermedabase,butthesetofbasesisnotexhaustedbytheunionofthesetofrootsandthesetofstems:aderivationallyanalysableformtowhichderivationalaffixesareaddedcanonlybereferredtoasabase.Thatis,‘touchable’canactasabaseforprefixationtogive‘untouchable’,butinthisprocess‘touchable’couldnotbereferredtoasarootbecauseitisanalysableintermsofderivationalmorphology,norasastemsinceitisnottheaddingofinflectionalaffixeswhichisinquestion.14.inflectionalmorphemes-Derivationalmorphemes-屈折语素派生语素Inflectionalaffixesorinflectionalmorphemesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degree,andcase.TheEnglishinflectionalaffixesinclude:屈折词缀或屈折语素表明各种不同的语法关系或语法范畴，如：数、时态、形容词和副词的级和格。现在英语中的屈折词缀包括：-(e)s,indicatingpluralityofnouns表示名词复数-(e)s,indicatingthirdpersonsingular,presenttense表示现在时的第三人称单数-(e)d,indicatingpasttenseforallthreepersons表示过去时-ing,indicatingprogressiveaspect表示进行时-er,indicatingcomparativedegreeofadj.andadverbs表示形容词和副词比较级-est,indicatingsuperlativedegreeofadj.andadverbs表示形容词和副词最高级-‘s,indicatingthepossessivecaseofnouns表示名词的所有格Derivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.ThisisaverycommonwaytocreatenewwordsinEnglish.Suchawayofword-formationiscalledderivationandthenewwordformedbyderivationiscalledaderivative.Theexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeaddediscalledastem.Astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.派生词缀加在一个原有的单词上以构成一个新词。这是英语中的一个很常见的构成新词的方式，这样的方式叫派生法，用派生法构成的新词叫派生词。能够加上一个派生词缀的原有语素叫做词干。词干可以是一个黏着词根、自由语素或者本身就是一个派生词。实例：Tolerate词根toler-＋词缀-ateQuickly自由语素quick＋词缀-lyCarelessness自由语素care＋词缀-less形成的派生词careless＋词缀-ness15.Waysofwordformation&coinage(来源于维基百科)MorphologicalwordformationTherearetwosubcategories;wordscreatedbyderivationandwordscreatedbyconversion.DerivationMainarticle:Derivation(linguistics)Derivationistheprocessofformingnewwordsfromexistingonesbyaddingaffixestothem,likeshame+less+ness→shamelessness.Incasesinwhichthereisaone-to-onecorrespondencebetweenaffixesandsyntacticalcategories,thisisknownasagglutination,asseeninagglutinativelanguages.ConversionMainarticle:Conversion(wordformation)Alsoknownaszero-affixation,conversioninvolvesforminganewwordfromanexistingidenticalone,likeformingtheverbgreenfromtheexistingadjective.BlendingMainarticle:BlendwordAblendisawordformedbyjoiningpartsoftwoormoreolderwords.Anexampleissmog,whichcomesfromsmokeandfog,orbrunch,whichcomesfrom'breakfast'and'lunch'.Sub-categoriesofblendingare:Acronym:Awordformedfrominitiallettersofthewordsinaphrase,likeEnglishlaserfromlightamplifiedbystimulatedemissionofradiationClipping:Alsoknownas"truncation"or"shortening",clippingisthewordformationprocesswhichconsistsinthereductionofawordtooneofitsparts,e.g.fax(facsimile),flu(influenza)andbot(robot).Clippedwordsmaynotretaintheiroriginalmeaning.Forexample,"playingavideogameagainstabot"isnotthesameas"playingavideogameagainstarobot".CalqueMainarticle:CalqueAcalqueisawordorphraseborrowedfromanotherlanguagebyliteral,word-for-wordorroot-for-roottranslation.Forexample,theEnglishphrasetoloseface（丟臉/丢脸）isacalquefromChinese.Asub-categoryofcalquingisthesemanticloan,thatis,theextensionofthemeaningofawordtoincludenew,foreignmeanings.NeologismMainarticle:NeologismAneologismisacompletelynewword,likequark.Subcategoriesofneologismsinclude:Theeponym,apropernounthatbecomescommonlyusedforanideaitisassociatedwith,usuallybychangingitspartofspeech,likeXerox,Orwellian,andStentorianTheloanword,awordborrowedfromanotherlanguage,asclichéisfromFrenchAnonomatopoeicword,awordwhichimitatesnaturalsounds,likethebirdnamecuckooFormationusingphono-semanticmatching,thatis,matchingaforeignwordwithaphoneticallyandsemanticallysimilarpre-existingnativeword/root16.Category17.thecriteriaonwhichcategoriesaredetermined:Meaning;Inflection;Distribution18.TheXPrule,X’Theory&theSrule(查不完整)X-bartheoryX标杆理论NP/VP/AP/PPallmustcontainoneobligatoryword,wecallXP.ThismeansthatXPmustcontainX,whereXPstandsrespectivelyforNP/VP/AP/PPandXstandsforN/V/A/P.Therulemodifiedas:XP→(Specifier)X(Complement).X标杆理论是将各种短语结构规则高度抽象地综合成单一的X标杆规则理论。根据该理论，短语由指示语、核心词和补语组成，其中指示语和补语可有可无，但核心词却不可缺少。19.CoordinationruleDefinitionSomestructuresareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchas

and

or

or.Suchphenomenonisknownascoordination.借助连词,如或将两个或两个以上相同类型的成分联结起来而构成的短语结构称为并列结构X-------x*ConxNote:xstandsfor“acategoryatanystructurallevel”theasterisk*indicatesthatoneormorecategoriescanoccurtoleftoftheCon(conjunction).CoordinationofNPs:[NPthelady]or[NPthetiger]CoordinationofVPs:[VPgotothelibrary]and[VPreadabook]CoordinationofPPs:[PPdownthestairs]and[PPoutthedoor]CoordinationofAPs:[APquiteexpensive]and[APverybeautiful]CoordinationofSs:[SJohnlovesMary]and[SMarylovesJohntoo].20.Transformationsofsentencesmoveαrule Moveα–ageneralmovementrule移动α规则Justasthereisageneralruleforallphrasestructurerules,thatis,theX-barschema,thereisageneralmovementruleaccountingforthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.ThismovementruleiscalledMoveAlpha.AlphaisaGreeksymbolusedheretorepresentanyconstituent,andwhatMoveAlphasaysis“moveanyconstituenttoanyplace”.Itistoopowerful,sothegrammarshouldincludesomeconditionswhichwillrestrainthemovementpoweroftheruleandwhichwillstimulatethatonly“certainconstituents”canmovetoonly“certainpositions.”移动α规则是一条支配句法成分位移的普遍原则。如果X标杆理论规则将各种短语结构规则高度抽象地综合起来一样，该规则综合了所有的位移规则，可以解释所有语言中的一切位移现象。如果一个成分可以移到任意位置，那么就会又不合乎语法的句子出现。规则应该有一些条件来限制移位能力，使得只有“某些成分”可以移动到“某些位置”。21.Deepstructure&surfacestructure深层结构和表层结构Whatsyntacticmovementsuggestsforthestudyofthegrammaristhatasentencestructuremayhavetwolevelsofsyntacticrepresentation,onethatexistsbeforemovementtakesplace,andtheotherthatoccursaftermovementtakesplace.Informallinguisticexploration,thesetwosyntacticrepresentationsarecommonlytermedasD-structure(thedeepstructure)andS-structure(thesurfacestructure).Itisbelievedthatphrasestructurerules,withtheinsertionofthelexicon,generatesentencesatthelevelofD-structure,whiletheapplicationofsyntacticmovementrulestransformsasentencefromthelevelofD-structuretothatofS-structure.句法位移对语法研究的启示是，一个句子结构可以有两个层次的句法表现，一个存在于位移发生之前，一个存在于位移发生之后。在正规的语言学研究中，这两种句法表现称为深层结构和表层结构。短语结构规则通过插入词汇在深层结构上生成句子，而应用句法位移规则又把句子从深层结构转化到表层结构。Sincesyntacticmovementdoesnotoccurtoallsentences,theD-structureandS-structureofsomesentenceslookexactlythesameatdifferentlevelsofrepresentation.由于并非所有句子都能发生句法位移，因而一个句子的深层结构和表层结构在不同的表现层次上是完全相同的。22.viewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning:Namingtheory(Plato);Theconceptualist;Contextualism;Behaviorism语义研究的几种主要理论1) Thenamingtheory命名论ItwasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.命名论是最原始的语义理论，是古希腊学者柏拉图提出的。该理论把词看作是该词所指事物的名称或标记。2) Theconceptualistview意念论Theconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.意念论认为，语言形式及其所代表的对象之间（即语言与现实世界之间）没有直接联系；确切地说，在理解语义时，是通过大脑中存在意念这一中介物来联系的。3) Contextualism语境论Contextualismisbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.Twokindsofcontextarerecognized:thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext.语境论以这样的假设为基础：人们可以从显而易见的语境中推知或归纳出语义。语境有两种：情景语境和语言语境。语境论认为语言的意义离不开使用语言的语境，语义不是抽象的，它存在于语境之中，它来自语境，取决于语境。4) Behaviorism行为主义论Behavioristsattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe“situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer.”Thistheory,somewhatclosetocontextualism,islinkedwithpsychologicalinterest.语义的行为主义论和语义的语境论有相似之处，它也把语义放到语境中去研究，但它更注重人的心理活动，认为语言的意义存在于语言使用者在交际过程中对听到话语的反应。23.OgdenandRichards:semantictriangle语义三角理论(来源于网页)OgdenandRichardspresentedtheclassic“SemanticTriangle”asmanifestedinthefollowingdiagram,inwhichthe“symbol”or“form”referstothelinguisticelements(word,sentence,etc.),the“referent”referstotheobjectintheworldofexperience,and“thought”or“reference”referstoconceptornotion.Thus,thesymbolawordsignifies“things”byvirtueofthe“concept”,associatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindofthespeakerofthelanguage.The“concept”thusconsideredismeaningoftheword.24.Senseandreference意义与指称(来源于网页)Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.（文库有详细中文版：/view/8e13be3287c24028915fc39a.html）25.context&twotypesofcontextsaccordingtoContextualismContextualismisbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.Twokindsofcontextarerecognized:thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext.语境论以这样的假设为基础：人们可以从显而易见的语境中推知或归纳出语义。语境有两种：情景语境和语言语境。语境论认为语言的意义离不开使用语言的语境，语义不是抽象的，它存在于语境之中，它来自语境，取决于语境。26.Majorsenserelationsofwords:Synonymy;Antonymy;Polysemy;Homonymy;hyponymy主要意义关系1） Synonymy同义关系Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.同义现象指的是语义的相同或相近。词义相近的词叫同义词。Accordingtothewaytheydiffer,synonymscanbedividedintothefollowinggroups:a) Dialectalsynonyms–synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects.BritishEnglishandAmericanEnglisharethetwomajorgeographicalvarietiesoftheEnglishlanguage.方言同义词－用在不同地域方言中的同义词。英国英语和美国英语是英语的两大地理变体。示例：英国英语美国英语AutumnfallLiftelevatorFlatdepartmentWindscreenwindshieldTorchflashlightb) Stylisticsynonyms–synonymsdifferinginstyle.Wordshavingthesamemeaningmaydifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality.Inotherwords,somewordstendtobemoreformal,otherscasual,andstillothersneutralinstyle.文体同义词－在文体上有差异的同义词。有同样意义的词可能在文体上，或者在正式程度上有所不同。也就是说，有些往往比较正式，有些比较随意，有些在问题上则是中性的。示例：Oldman,daddy,dad,father,maleparentStart,begin,commenceKid,child,offspringc) SynonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaningTherearewordsthatbearthesamemeaningbutexpressdifferentemotionsoftheuser,indicatingtheattitudeorbiasoftheusertowardwhatheistalkingabout.情感意义或评价意义有所不同的同义词。有着相同的意义却表达了使用者的不同情感的词语，这些词暗示使用者对他所谈论的事情的态度或倾向。示例：Collaborator合作者/Accomplice同谋者，帮凶Like,love,admire,adore,worshipEconomical,frugal,thrifty,mean,miserly,stingyd) Collocationalsynonyms–synonymsdifferingintheircollocation.Somesynonymsdifferintheircollocation,i.e.,inthewordstheygotogetherwith.Thisisamatterofusage.搭配同义词－同义词在其搭配上各不相同，即能和这些不同的同义词相配的词各不相同。示例：Accuse…ofcharge…withrebuke…fore) Semanticallydifferentsynonyms–synonymsthatdifferslightlyinwhattheymean.语义上不同的同义词－同义词的意义非常接近，但却有细微差别。示例：Amaze暗示困惑和迷惑astound暗示难以置信Escape意味逃离不愉快或者危险的事flee意味匆匆离开2） Polysemy多义关系Thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Thisiswhatwecallpolysemy,andsuchawordiscalledapolysemicword.Thefactisthemorecommonlyusedawordis,themorelikelyithasacquiredmorethanonemeaning.同一个单词可能有一个以上的意义，这就是我们所说的一词多义，这样的词叫多义词。一个词越常用，它就越可能获得一个以上的意义。示例：Table一词最初只有一个意义，很可能指一块石板或木板，这叫做其原始意义。后来它逐渐获得了它现在所指称的其它意义。3） Homonymy同音/同形异义关系Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordhavingdifferentmeaninghavethesameform,i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarehomophones.Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecompletehomonyms.同形异义是指意义不同的词有着相同的语言形式的现象，即不同的词发音上或拼写上，或者两个方面都相同。两个单词在发音上相同时，叫同音异义词。两个单词在拼写上相同时，叫同形异义词。两个单词在发音和拼写上都相同时，叫完全同形异义词。示例：同音异义词：rain/reign;night/knight;piece/peace同形异义词：bowv./bown.;tearv./tearn.;leadv./leadn.完全同形异义词：fastadj./fastv.;scalen./scalev.4） Hyponymy上下义关系Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneralmoreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuper-ordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.Hyponymsofthesamesuper-ordinateareco-hyponymstoeachother.上下义关系是指一个具有一般性、包容性的词与一个更为具体的词之间的意义关系。意义更具有一般性的词叫上义词，意义更为具体的词叫下义词。同一个上义词的多个下义词叫并列下义词。示例：上义词：flower下义词：rose（玫瑰花）,tulip（郁金香）,carnation（康乃馨）,lily（百合花）,morningglory（牵牛花）上义词：animal下义词：dog,cat,tiger,lion,wolf,elephant,fax,bear5） Antonymy反义关系Thetermantonymyisusedforoppositenessofmeaning,wordsthatareoppositeinmeaningareantonyms.反义关系用以指意义的相反。意义上相反的词叫反义词。a) Gradableantonyms分级反义词Someantonymsaregradablebecausethereareoftenintermediateform