翻译理论史课件

WesternTranslationHistoryWesternTranslationHistoryReferences陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，1992.马祖毅.中国翻译史[Z].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1988.谭载喜.西方翻译简史[Z].北京：商务印书馆，1991.ReferencesWesterntranslationhistoryundergoessixtranslationclimaxes.

TranslationstudiesoftheRomans

TranslationStudiesintheMiddleAges(BibleTranslation)

TranslationstudiesduringtheRenaissanceTranslationStudiesintheEarlyModernTimes(17th-19thcentury)

TranslationstudiesinthetwentiethcenturyWesterntranslationhistoryunTranslationStudiesoftheRomansStudiesontranslationgobacktotheRomans.EricJacobsonclaimsthattranslatingisaRomaninvention.CiceroandHorace(1stcenturyBC)werethefirsttheoristswhomadeanimportantdistinctionbetweenword-for-wordtranslationandsense-for-sensetranslation.Theirviewsontranslationinfluencedsuccessivegenerationsoftranslatorsuptothetwentiethcentury.TranslationStudiesoftheRomTheunderlyingprincipleofenrichingtheirnativelanguageandliteraturethroughtranslationleadstoastressontheaestheticcriteriaoftheTLproductratherthanonmorerigidnotionof“fidelity”.TheunderlyingprincipleofenHorace,inhisArtofPoetry,warnsagainstovercautiousimitationofthesourcemodel:

Athemethatisfamiliarcanbemadeyourownpropertysolongasyoudonotwasteyourtimeonahackneyed(outdated)treatment;norshouldyoutrytorenderyouroriginalwordforwordlikeaslavishtranslator,orinimitatinganotherwriterplungeyourselfintodifficultiesfromwhichshame,ortherulesyouhavelaiddownforyourself,preventyoufromextricating(liberating)yourself?只要你不受陈腐之举的牵绊，你便能将一个熟悉的主题写出自己的个性。千万不要把精力花在逐字逐句的死搬死译上，如同一个被奴役的译者；也不要在模仿作者的时候作茧自缚，既怕人耻笑又怕犯了写作规则，不敢越出雷池一步Horace,inhisArtofPoetry,Romantranslationmaybeperceivedasuniqueinthatitarisesfromavisionofliteraryproductionthatfollowsanestablishedcanonofexcellenceacrosslinguisticboundaries.古罗马时代的翻译有其独特的价值，因为它源于一种文学创作的视角，这一视角遵循着公认的卓越原则，跨越了语言界限。RomantranslationmaybeperceImportantRomanTranslators(1)LiviusAndronicus(284?-204B.C.)(translatedHomer’sOdyssey,Aischulos’andSophokles’tragedies,Menandros’comedies)(2)MarcusTulluisCicero[西塞罗](106-43B.C.)(translatedHomer’sOdyssey,Plato’sTimaeusandProtagoras,Xenophon’sEconomics,Aratus’sPhenomena)(3)QuintusHoratiusFlaccus[贺拉斯](65-8B.C.)ImportantRomanTranslatorsStudiesonBibleTranslation(intheMiddleAges-fromtheendoftheRomanEmpiretotheRenaissance)TheBibletranslationholdsaveryimportantpositionintheWesterntranslationhistory.

WiththespreadofChristianity,translationcametoacquireanotherrole,thatofdisseminationthewordofGod.TranslationoftheNewTestmentwasmarkedbyStJerome(fourthcenturyCE)."HisapproachtotranslatingtheGreekSeptuagintBibleintoLatinwouldaffectlatertranslationsofthescriptures.“StudiesonBibleTranslationTranslatorsoftheBible:(1)PhiloJudacus(20?-50?B.C.)(translatedtheBible)(2)StJerome(331-420A.D.)(translatedtheNewtestamentfromGreekandtheOldTestamentfromHebrewintoLatin)(3)St.Augustine(345-430A.D.)TranslatorsoftheBible:InthesixteenthcenturythehistoryofBibletranslationacquirednewdimensionswiththeadventofprinting.ThesixteenthcenturysawthetranslationoftheBibleintoalargenumberofEuropeanlanguages,inbothProtestantandRomanCatholicversions,andrevisedversionofexistingtranslationscontinuedtoappearinEnglish,Dutch,GermanandFrench.InthesixteenthcenturythehTranslationStudiesduringtheRenaissanceTranslationinRenaissanceEuropecametoplayaroleofcentralimportance.Andtranslationwasbynomeansasecondaryactivity,butaprimaryone,exertingashapingforceontheintellectuallifeoftheage,andattimesthefigureofthetranslatorappearsalmostasrevolutionaryactivistratherthantheservantofanoriginalauthorortext.TranslationStudiesduringtheRenaissanceandTranslationRenaissanceistheperiodinEuropebetweenthe14thand17centuries,whentheart,literature,andideasofancientGreecewerediscoveredagainandwidelystudied,causingarebirthofactivityinallthesethings.TheroletranslationplaysinRenaissance:meansoftransplantingnewideasandthoughts,comparedtowartrophiesinliteratureandart.Renaissanceinturninfluencedtranslationgreatlyintermsofattitudes

towardtranslationandtranslationmethodsorapproaches.RenaissanceandTranslationSummaryoftranslationinRenaissanceTheRenaissanceperiodwitnessedaconsiderableincreaseinthenumberoftranslations,duetothestimulatinginfluenceoftheRenaissanceandtheintroductionofprintingtechnologyandperceptionoftranslationasameansofdisseminatingknowledgetoawideraudience.Inaddition,newviewsontranslationappearedandtranslationactivitiescenterednotonlyontheBibleandclassicalliterarytexts,butalsoonotherkindsoftextssuchasscientificonesandhelpeddevelopthenationallanguages.SummaryoftranslationinRenaTranslationStudiesintheEarlyModernTimes(17th-19thcentury)BriefIntroduction17thcentury-19thcenturyisaveryimportantperiodoftranslationandtranslationstudiesinthewest.Featuresofwesterntranslationinthisperiod:

1)Translationbecameprosperousbecauseofboostingofproduction,prosperouseconomy,moreandmorepeoplereceivingeducationandbeingeagertoreadandwrite;2)Eachperioddiffersfromtheotherandeachcountrydiffersfromtheotherintranslation;3)TranslationischaracterizedbyinaccuraterepresentationoftheoriginalmessageintheTLinmanycasesinsomecountries;TranslationStudiesintheEar4)Translationtheoriesbegantodevelopsystematicallyintermsoftheirframeworkinthe18thcenturyandfounditscenterinthe19thcenturyGermany;5)Thefocusoftranslationpracticebegantobeshiftedfromclassicstomodernworks;6)JesusChristschool:inaccuratetranslation,makingclassicsreligiousintranslationversion.

Port-Royalschool:stressingthepresent,oftenaddingsomethingtotheoriginalcontentoromittingsomethingoftheSTinthetranslation.7)The19thcenturyFrenchtranslatorssuchasFrancoise-RenedeChateaubriand(1768-1848),GerardNerval(1808-1855)andCharlesBaudelaire(1821-1867)focusedtheirattentionontranslatingmodernworkssuchasthoseofShakespeareandAllenPoe.4)TranslationtheoriesbeganIntheseventeenthcenturyBythemid-seventeenthcenturythewideningofthegapbetweentraditionalChristianHumanismandsciencehadallledtoradicalchangesinthetheoryofliteratureandhencetotheroleoftranslation.JohnDryden(1631-1700),formulatedthetrichotomyoftranslation:(1)Metaphrase(直译),orturninganauthorwordbyword,andlinebyline,fromonelanguageintoanother;(2)Paraphrase(意译),ortranslationwithlatitude(flexibility),theCiceronian“sense-for-sense”viewoftranslation.(3)Imitation(仿译),wherethetranslatorcanabandonthetextoftheoriginalasheseesfit.Intheseventeenthcentury

OfthesetypesDrydenchoosesthesecond(paraphrase)asthemorebalancedpath,providedthetranslatorfulfilscertaincriteria:

Totranslatepoetry,heargues,thetranslatormustbeapoet,mustbeamasterofbothlanguages,andmustunderstandboththecharacteristicsandspiritoftheoriginalauthor,

besidesconformingtotheaestheticcanonsofhisownage.Heusesthemetaphorofthetranslator/portraitpainter,thatwastoreappearsofrequentlyintheeighteenthcentury,maintainingthatthepainterhasthedutyofmakinghisportraitresembletheoriginal.

OfthesetypesDrydenchooseDryden’sviewsontranslationwerefollowedfairlycloselybyAlexanderPope(1688-1744),whoadvocatesthesamemiddlegroundasDryden,withstressonclosereadingoftheoriginaltonotethedetailsofstyleandmannerwhilstendeavoringtokeepalivethe“fire”ofthepoem.Dryden’sviewsontranslation

IntheEighteenthCenturyUnderlyingDryden’sandPope’sconceptoftranslationisanotherelement,beyondtheproblemofthedebatebetweenoverfaithfulnessandlooseness:thewholequestionofthemoraldutyofthetranslatortohiscontemporaryreaders.Theimpulsetoclarifyandmakeplaintheessentialspiritofatextledtolargescalerewritingsofearliertextstofitthemtocontemporarystandardsoflanguageandtaste.Hencethefamousre-structuringofShakespeariantexts,andthetranslationsofRacine. IntheEighteenthCenturyTowardstheendoftheeighteenthcentury,in1791,AlexanderFraserTytlerpublishedavolumeentitledTheprinciplesoftranslation,thefirstsystematicstudyinEnglishofthetranslationprocesses.Tytlersetupthreebasicprinciples:ThetranslationshouldgiveacompletetranscriptoftheideaoftheoriginalworkThestyleandmannerofwritingshouldbeofthesamecharacterwiththatoftheoriginal.Thetranslationshouldhavealltheeaseoftheoriginalcomposition.TowardstheendoftheeighteeIntheRomanticPeriodSomanytextsweretranslatedatthistimethatweretohaveaseminaleffectontheTL.Stressontheimpactofthetranslationinthetargetcultureinfactresultedinashiftofinterestawayfromtheactualprocessesoftranslation.Moreover,twoconflictingtendenciescanbedeterminedintheearlynineteenthcentury:oneexaltstranslationasacategoryofthought,withthetranslatorseenasacreativegeniusinhisownright,intouchwiththegeniusofhisoriginalandenrichingtheliteratureandlanguageintowhichheistranslating;theotherseestranslationintermsofthemoremechanicalfunctionof“makingknown”atextorauthor.IntheRomanticPeriodSomanyTranslationstudiesinthetwentiethcentury

Inthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcentury,studiesontranslationbecameanimportantcourseinlanguageteachingandlearningatschools.Whataddstoitsvalueisthecreationofavarietyofmethodsandmodelsoftranslation:TranslationstudiesinthetweForinstance,thegrammar-translationmodelstudiesthegrammaticalrulesandstructuresofforeignlanguages.Theculturalmodelisalsoawitnessforthedevelopmentoftranslationstudiesintheperiod.Itrequiredintranslationnotonlyaword-for-wordsubstitution,butalsoaculturalunderstandingofthewaypeopleindifferentsocietiesthink.Withthismodel,wecandistinguishbetweentheethnographical-semanticmethod(民俗学-语义学方法)andthedynamicequivalentmethod.Forinstance,thegrammar-tranAnothermodelthatappearsintheperiodistext-basedtranslationmodel,whichfocusesontextsratherthanwordsorsentencesintranslationprocess.Thismodelincludesavarietyofsub-models:theinterpretativemodel,thetextlinguisticmodelandmodelsoftranslationqualityassessmentsthatinturnprovideuswithmanymodelssuchasthoseofRiess,Wilss,Koller,House,North.

Anothermodelthatappearsin规范研究的篇章语言学派代表人物首推德国人诺伊贝特(Neubert),他把翻译定义为“原语文本导致的译语文本的生产”。(Schaffner,1999)他认为,翻译的基本单位是文本,译者首先应把握整个文本的宏大陈述,然后将文本划分为较小的单个的可转换的语义单位。他主张文本层次上的对等。为了达到文本对等,译本必须做到“真正的连贯”。他强调,“真正的连贯”是翻译较大篇幅的文本应遵循的规范。(Gentzler,1993)不少译论者把文本按不同的规律分成不同的类型。赖斯(Reiss)将文本划分为3种类型:信息文本(着重于内容和信息)、形式文本(着重于语言形式)和呼吁文本(着重于对读者发出呼吁)。翻译主要是受原文中居于支配地位的某种功能的制约。纽马克(1988)则根据不同的内容和文体,将文本分为表达功能(expressivefunction)、信息功能(informativefunction)和呼唤功能(vocativefunction),其文本类型的划分法与赖斯颇为相似。规范研究的篇章语言学派代表人物首推德国人诺伊贝特(Neube在此基础之上,译论者们企图通过对原语和目的语系统的比较和描述建立文本类型的样板(prototype或genreprofile)。不同文本类型样板要求不同的翻译方法与之相适应。例如,纽马克主张,在以表达功能为主的文本中,作者独特的语言形式和内容应视为同等重要,翻译方法应以语义翻译(semantictranslation)为主;翻译以信息功能为主的文本和以呼唤功能为主的文本,宜主要采用交际翻译(communicativetranslation)的方法。在此基础之上,译论者们企图通过对原语和目的语系统的比较和描Theperiodisalsocharacterizedbypragmaticandsystematicapproachtothestudyoftranslation.ThemostfamouswritingsandfiguresthatcharacterizethetwentiesarethoseofVinayandDarbelnet(1958),whoworkedonastylisticcomparativestudyofFrenchandEnglish,JohnC.Catford(1965),EugeneNida(1964),whoisaffectedbytheChomsky’sgenerativegrammarinhistheoriesoftranslation,DeBeaugrandwhowritesalotabouttranslation,andmanyotherswhoworkedandstillworkforthedevelopmentofthedomain.TheperiodisalsocharacterizVinayandDarbelnet(1958):“翻译是一个真正的学科,具有自身特殊的技巧和问题,”值得在语言学分析手段的启示下进行系统研究。VinayandDarbelnet(1958)列举了7种翻译方法:意译法、借词译法、直译、换位译法、调整译法、等值译法和归化法。(许钧、袁筱一,1998)VinayandDarbelnet(1958):30时间特点译著公元前3世纪中叶打开了欧洲翻译的局面，使古希腊文学得以传播和继承Septuagint(希伯来语希腊语)Odyssey大批希腊戏剧(希腊语拉丁文)公元４世纪至６世纪之间与基督教的发展有关(忠实地传达原文意旨必须采用直译的方式)《圣经》各种译本（希伯来语、希腊语拉丁文），如TheVulgatebyJerome11至12世纪基督教与穆斯林对彼此的文化深感兴趣大批作品（阿拉伯语拉丁文；希腊语古叙利亚语）、托莱多（西）14至16世纪文艺复兴，翻译活动深入到宗教、思想、政治、哲学、和文学等众多领域，翻译思想活跃、译作类别、数量和质量达到巅峰《圣经》（民众喜闻乐见的德语）马丁·路德KingJamesVersion（英语中最伟大的译著）、《希腊、罗马名人比较列传》阿米欧（法）、《伊利亚特》《奥得赛》查普曼（英）第二次世界大战结束以来翻译活动的规模、翻译研究的深度和广度令人瞩目

西方翻译的五次高潮30时间特点译著公元前3世纪中叶打开了欧洲翻译的局面，使古希WesternTranslationHistoryWesternTranslationHistoryReferences陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，1992.马祖毅.中国翻译史[Z].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1988.谭载喜.西方翻译简史[Z].北京：商务印书馆，1991.ReferencesWesterntranslationhistoryundergoessixtranslationclimaxes.

TranslationstudiesoftheRomans

TranslationStudiesintheMiddleAges(BibleTranslation)

TranslationstudiesduringtheRenaissanceTranslationStudiesintheEarlyModernTimes(17th-19thcentury)

TranslationstudiesinthetwentiethcenturyWesterntranslationhistoryunTranslationStudiesoftheRomansStudiesontranslationgobacktotheRomans.EricJacobsonclaimsthattranslatingisaRomaninvention.CiceroandHorace(1stcenturyBC)werethefirsttheoristswhomadeanimportantdistinctionbetweenword-for-wordtranslationandsense-for-sensetranslation.Theirviewsontranslationinfluencedsuccessivegenerationsoftranslatorsuptothetwentiethcentury.TranslationStudiesoftheRomTheunderlyingprincipleofenrichingtheirnativelanguageandliteraturethroughtranslationleadstoastressontheaestheticcriteriaoftheTLproductratherthanonmorerigidnotionof“fidelity”.TheunderlyingprincipleofenHorace,inhisArtofPoetry,warnsagainstovercautiousimitationofthesourcemodel:

Athemethatisfamiliarcanbemadeyourownpropertysolongasyoudonotwasteyourtimeonahackneyed(outdated)treatment;norshouldyoutrytorenderyouroriginalwordforwordlikeaslavishtranslator,orinimitatinganotherwriterplungeyourselfintodifficultiesfromwhichshame,ortherulesyouhavelaiddownforyourself,preventyoufromextricating(liberating)yourself?只要你不受陈腐之举的牵绊，你便能将一个熟悉的主题写出自己的个性。千万不要把精力花在逐字逐句的死搬死译上，如同一个被奴役的译者；也不要在模仿作者的时候作茧自缚，既怕人耻笑又怕犯了写作规则，不敢越出雷池一步Horace,inhisArtofPoetry,Romantranslationmaybeperceivedasuniqueinthatitarisesfromavisionofliteraryproductionthatfollowsanestablishedcanonofexcellenceacrosslinguisticboundaries.古罗马时代的翻译有其独特的价值，因为它源于一种文学创作的视角，这一视角遵循着公认的卓越原则，跨越了语言界限。RomantranslationmaybeperceImportantRomanTranslators(1)LiviusAndronicus(284?-204B.C.)(translatedHomer’sOdyssey,Aischulos’andSophokles’tragedies,Menandros’comedies)(2)MarcusTulluisCicero[西塞罗](106-43B.C.)(translatedHomer’sOdyssey,Plato’sTimaeusandProtagoras,Xenophon’sEconomics,Aratus’sPhenomena)(3)QuintusHoratiusFlaccus[贺拉斯](65-8B.C.)ImportantRomanTranslatorsStudiesonBibleTranslation(intheMiddleAges-fromtheendoftheRomanEmpiretotheRenaissance)TheBibletranslationholdsaveryimportantpositionintheWesterntranslationhistory.

WiththespreadofChristianity,translationcametoacquireanotherrole,thatofdisseminationthewordofGod.TranslationoftheNewTestmentwasmarkedbyStJerome(fourthcenturyCE)."HisapproachtotranslatingtheGreekSeptuagintBibleintoLatinwouldaffectlatertranslationsofthescriptures.“StudiesonBibleTranslationTranslatorsoftheBible:(1)PhiloJudacus(20?-50?B.C.)(translatedtheBible)(2)StJerome(331-420A.D.)(translatedtheNewtestamentfromGreekandtheOldTestamentfromHebrewintoLatin)(3)St.Augustine(345-430A.D.)TranslatorsoftheBible:InthesixteenthcenturythehistoryofBibletranslationacquirednewdimensionswiththeadventofprinting.ThesixteenthcenturysawthetranslationoftheBibleintoalargenumberofEuropeanlanguages,inbothProtestantandRomanCatholicversions,andrevisedversionofexistingtranslationscontinuedtoappearinEnglish,Dutch,GermanandFrench.InthesixteenthcenturythehTranslationStudiesduringtheRenaissanceTranslationinRenaissanceEuropecametoplayaroleofcentralimportance.Andtranslationwasbynomeansasecondaryactivity,butaprimaryone,exertingashapingforceontheintellectuallifeoftheage,andattimesthefigureofthetranslatorappearsalmostasrevolutionaryactivistratherthantheservantofanoriginalauthorortext.TranslationStudiesduringtheRenaissanceandTranslationRenaissanceistheperiodinEuropebetweenthe14thand17centuries,whentheart,literature,andideasofancientGreecewerediscoveredagainandwidelystudied,causingarebirthofactivityinallthesethings.TheroletranslationplaysinRenaissance:meansoftransplantingnewideasandthoughts,comparedtowartrophiesinliteratureandart.Renaissanceinturninfluencedtranslationgreatlyintermsofattitudes

towardtranslationandtranslationmethodsorapproaches.RenaissanceandTranslationSummaryoftranslationinRenaissanceTheRenaissanceperiodwitnessedaconsiderableincreaseinthenumberoftranslations,duetothestimulatinginfluenceoftheRenaissanceandtheintroductionofprintingtechnologyandperceptionoftranslationasameansofdisseminatingknowledgetoawideraudience.Inaddition,newviewsontranslationappearedandtranslationactivitiescenterednotonlyontheBibleandclassicalliterarytexts,butalsoonotherkindsoftextssuchasscientificonesandhelpeddevelopthenationallanguages.SummaryoftranslationinRenaTranslationStudiesintheEarlyModernTimes(17th-19thcentury)BriefIntroduction17thcentury-19thcenturyisaveryimportantperiodoftranslationandtranslationstudiesinthewest.Featuresofwesterntranslationinthisperiod:

1)Translationbecameprosperousbecauseofboostingofproduction,prosperouseconomy,moreandmorepeoplereceivingeducationandbeingeagertoreadandwrite;2)Eachperioddiffersfromtheotherandeachcountrydiffersfromtheotherintranslation;3)TranslationischaracterizedbyinaccuraterepresentationoftheoriginalmessageintheTLinmanycasesinsomecountries;TranslationStudiesintheEar4)Translationtheoriesbegantodevelopsystematicallyintermsoftheirframeworkinthe18thcenturyandfounditscenterinthe19thcenturyGermany;5)Thefocusoftranslationpracticebegantobeshiftedfromclassicstomodernworks;6)JesusChristschool:inaccuratetranslation,makingclassicsreligiousintranslationversion.

Port-Royalschool:stressingthepresent,oftenaddingsomethingtotheoriginalcontentoromittingsomethingoftheSTinthetranslation.7)The19thcenturyFrenchtranslatorssuchasFrancoise-RenedeChateaubriand(1768-1848),GerardNerval(1808-1855)andCharlesBaudelaire(1821-1867)focusedtheirattentionontranslatingmodernworkssuchasthoseofShakespeareandAllenPoe.4)TranslationtheoriesbeganIntheseventeenthcenturyBythemid-seventeenthcenturythewideningofthegapbetweentraditionalChristianHumanismandsciencehadallledtoradicalchangesinthetheoryofliteratureandhencetotheroleoftranslation.JohnDryden(1631-1700),formulatedthetrichotomyoftranslation:(1)Metaphrase(直译),orturninganauthorwordbyword,andlinebyline,fromonelanguageintoanother;(2)Paraphrase(意译),ortranslationwithlatitude(flexibility),theCiceronian“sense-for-sense”viewoftranslation.(3)Imitation(仿译),wherethetranslatorcanabandonthetextoftheoriginalasheseesfit.Intheseventeenthcentury

OfthesetypesDrydenchoosesthesecond(paraphrase)asthemorebalancedpath,providedthetranslatorfulfilscertaincriteria:

Totranslatepoetry,heargues,thetranslatormustbeapoet,mustbeamasterofbothlanguages,andmustunderstandboththecharacteristicsandspiritoftheoriginalauthor,

besidesconformingtotheaestheticcanonsofhisownage.Heusesthemetaphorofthetranslator/portraitpainter,thatwastoreappearsofrequentlyintheeighteenthcentury,maintainingthatthepainterhasthedutyofmakinghisportraitresembletheoriginal.

OfthesetypesDrydenchooseDryden’sviewsontranslationwerefollowedfairlycloselybyAlexanderPope(1688-1744),whoadvocatesthesamemiddlegroundasDryden,withstressonclosereadingoftheoriginaltonotethedetailsofstyleandmannerwhilstendeavoringtokeepalivethe“fire”ofthepoem.Dryden’sviewsontranslation

IntheEighteenthCenturyUnderlyingDryden’sandPope’sconceptoftranslationisanotherelement,beyondtheproblemofthedebatebetweenoverfaithfulnessandlooseness:thewholequestionofthemoraldutyofthetranslatortohiscontemporaryreaders.Theimpulsetoclarifyandmakeplaintheessentialspiritofatextledtolargescalerewritingsofearliertextstofitthemtocontemporarystandardsoflanguageandtaste.Hencethefamousre-structuringofShakespeariantexts,andthetranslationsofRacine. IntheEighteenthCenturyTowardstheendoftheeighteenthcentury,in1791,AlexanderFraserTytlerpublishedavolumeentitledTheprinciplesoftranslation,thefirstsystematicstudyinEnglishofthetranslationprocesses.Tytlersetupthreebasicprinciples:ThetranslationshouldgiveacompletetranscriptoftheideaoftheoriginalworkThestyleandmannerofwritingshouldbeofthesamecharacterwiththatoftheoriginal.Thetranslationshouldhavealltheeaseoftheoriginalcomposition.TowardstheendoftheeighteeIntheRomanticPeriodSomanytextsweretranslatedatthistimethatweretohaveaseminaleffectontheTL.Stressontheimpactofthetranslationinthetargetcultureinfactresultedinashiftofinterestawayfromtheactualprocessesoftranslation.Moreover,twoconflictingtendenciescanbedeterminedintheearlynineteenthcentury:oneexaltstranslationasacategoryofthought,withthetranslatorseenasacreativegeniusinhisownright,intouchwiththegeniusofhisoriginalandenrichingtheliteratureandlanguageintowhichheistranslating;theotherseestranslationintermsofthemoremechanicalfunctionof“makingknown”atextorauthor.IntheRomanticPeriodSomanyTranslationstudiesinthetwentiethcentury

Inthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcentury,studiesontranslationbecameanimportantcourseinlanguageteachingandlearningatschools.Whataddstoitsvalueisthecreationofavarietyofmethodsandmodelsoftranslation:TranslationstudiesinthetweForinstance,thegrammar-translationmodelstudiesthegrammaticalrulesandstructuresofforeignlanguages.Theculturalmodelisalsoawitnessforthedevelopmentoftranslationstudiesintheperiod.Itrequiredintranslationnotonlyaword-for-wordsubstitution,butalsoaculturalunderstandingofthewaypeopleindifferentsocietiesthink.Withthismodel,w