外文文献(市场营销策略)

MarketingStrategyMarketSegmentationandTargetStrategyAmarketconsistsofpeopleororganizationswithwants，moneytospend,andthewillingnesstospendit.However，withinmostmarketsthebuyer'needsarenotidentical.Therefore,asinglemarketingprogramstartswithidentifyingthedifferencesthatexistwithinamarket,aprocesscalledmarketsegmentation,anddecidingwhichsegmentswillbepursuedadstargetmarkets.Marketingsegmentationenablesacompanytomakemoreefficientuseofitsmarketingresources。Also,itallowsasmallcompanytocompeteeffectivelybyconcentratingononeortwosegments.Theapparentdrawbackofmarketsegmentationisthatitwillresultinhigherproductionandmarketingcoststhanaone-product，mass—marketstrategy。However,ifthemarketiscorrectlysegmented，thebetterfitwithcustomers'needswillactuallyresultingreaterefficiency。Thethreealternativestrategiesforselectingatargetmarketaremarketaggregation,singlesegment，andmultiplesegment。Market—aggregationstrategyinvolvesusingonemarketingmixtoreachamass,undifferentiatedmarket。Withasingle—segmentstrategy，acompanystillusesonlyonemarketingmix,butitisdirectedatonlyonesegmentofthetotalmarket.Amultiple-segmentstrategyentailsselectingtwoormoresegmentsanddevelopingaseparatemarketingmixtoreachsegment。PositioningtheProductManagement'sabilitytobringattentiontoaproductandtodifferentiateitinafavorablewayfromsimilarproductsgoesalongwaytowarddeterminingthatproduct'srevenues.Thusmanagementneedstoengageinpositioning，whichmeansdevelopingtheimagethataproductprojectsinrelationtocompetitiveproductsandtothefirm'sotherproducts.Marketingexecutivescanchoosefromavarietyofpositioningstrategies。Sometimestheydecidetousemorethanoneforaparticularproduct。Hereareseveralmajorpositioningstrategies:1.PositioninginRelationtoacompetitorForsomeproducts,thebestpositionisdirectlyagainstthecompetition.Thisstrategyisespeciallysuitableforafirmthatalreadyhasasoliddifferentialadvantageoristryingtosolidifysuchanadvantage。Tofendoffrivalmarkersofmicroprocessors，IntelCorp。launchedacampaigntoconvincebuyersthatitsproductissuperiortocompetitors。Thecompanyevenpaidcomputermakerstoincludetheslogan，”IntelInside"intheirads.Asthemarketleader,CocaColaintroduces—newproductsandexecutesitsmarketingstrategies.Atthesametime，itkeepsaneyeonPepsi-Cola,beingsuretomatchanyclever，effectivemarketingmovesmadebyitsprimarycompetitor.2。PositioninginRelationtoaProductClassorAttributeSometimesacompany’spositioningstrategyentailsassociatingitsproductwithordistancingitfrom)aproductclassorattributes。Somecompaniestrytoplacetheirproductsinadesirableclass,suchas”Made。”inInthetheUSAwordsofoneconsultant,"Thereisastrongemotionalappealwhenyousay，’MadeintheUSA’".Thusasmallsportswearmanufacturer，BostonPreparatoryCo。isusingthispositioningstrategytoseekanedgeoverlargecompetitorssuchasCalvinKleinandTommyHilfiger，whichdon’tproducealloftheirproductsinthe。US..3。PositioningbyPriceandQualityCertainproducerandretailersareknownfortheirhigh-qualityproductsandhighprices.Intheretailingfield，SakeFifthAvenueandNeimanMarcusarepositionedatoneendoftheprice—qualitycontinuum.DiscountstoressuchasTargetandKmartareattheother.We’renotsaying,however，thatdiscountersignorequality;rather，theystresslowprices。Penney'stired—andforthemostpartsucceededin—repositioningitsstoresontheprice—qualitycontinuumbyupgradingapparellinesandstressingdesignernames。Thewordbrandsiscomprehensive；itencompassesothernarrowerterms。Abrandisanameand/ormarkintendedtoidentifytheproductofonesellerorgroupofsellersanddifferentiatetheproductfromcompetingproducts.Abrandnameconsistsofwords,letters，and/ornumbersthatcanbevocalized.Abrandmarkisthepartofthebrandthatappearsintheformofasymbol，design,ordistinctivecolororlettering.Abrandmarkisrecognizedbuysightbucannotbeexpressedwhenapersonpronouncesthebrandname.Crest，Coors,andriderforRalphLauren'sPoloBrand。GreenGiant（cannedandfrozenvegetableproducts)andArmHammer（bakingsoda)arebothbrandnamesandbrandmarks。Atrademarkisabrandthathasbeenadoptedbyasellerandgivenlegalprotection.Atrademarkincludesnotjustthebrandmark，asmanypeoplebelieve，butalsothebrandname。TheLanhamActof1946permitsfirmstoregistertrademarks1withthefederalgovernmenttoprotectthemfromuseormisusebyothercompanies。TheTrademarkLawRevisionAct,whichtookeffectin1989，istendedtostrengthenthetheregistrationsystemtothebenefitofU.S.Firms.Forsellers，brandscanbepromoted。Theyareeasilyrecognizedwhendisplayedinastoreorincludedinadvertising。Brandingreducespricecomparisons.Becausebrandsareanotherfactorthatneedstobeconsideredincomparingdifferentproducts，brandingreducesthelikelihoodofpurchasedecisionbasedsolelyonprice。Thereputationofabrandalsoinfluencescustomerloyaltyamongbuyersofservicesaswellascustomergoods.Finally,brandingcandifferentiatecommodities（Sunkistoranges，Mortonsalt，andDominosugar,forexample）.PricingPricingisadynamicprocess,Companiesdesignapricingstructurethatcoversalltheirproducts.Theychangethisstructureovertimeandadjustittoaccountfordifferentcustomersandsituations.Pricingstrategiesusuallychangeasaproductpassesthroughitslifecycle.Marketersfaceimportantchoicewhentheyselectnewproductpricingstrategies。Thecompanycandecideononeofseveralprice—qualitystrategiesforintroducinganimitativeproduct.Inpricinginnovativeproducts，itcanpracticemarket-skimmingpricingbyinitiallysettinghighpricesto”skim"themaximumamountofrevenuefromvarioussegmentsofthemarket.Oritcanusemarketpenetrationpricingbysettingalowinitialpricetowinalargemarketshare.Companiesapplyavarietyofprice-adjustmentstrategiestoaccountfordifferencesinconsumersegmentsandsituations。Oneisdiscountandallowancepricing,wherebythecompanydecidesonquantity，functional，orseasonaldiscounts,orvaryingtypesofallowances.Asecondstrategyissegmentedpricing，wherethecompanysellersaproductattwoormorepricestoallowfordifferencesincustomers,products，orlocations.Sometimescompaniesconsidermorethaneconomicsintheirpricingdecisions,andusepsychologicalpricingtocommunicateabouttheproduct'squalityorvalue.Inpromotionalpricing,companiestemporarilyselltheirproductbellowlistpriceasaspecial—eventtodrawmorecustomers，sometimesevensellingbelowcost。Withvaluepricing,thecompanyoffersjustthenightcombinationofqualityandgoodserviceatafairprice.Anotherapproachisgeographicalpricing，wherebythecompanydecideshowtopricedistantcustomers,choosingfromalternativeasFOBpricing，uniformdeliveredpricing,zonepricing,basing—point2pricing,andfreight—absorptionpricing.Finally，internationalpricingmeansthatthecompanyadjustsitspricetomeetdifferentworldmarkets.DistributionChannelsMostproducersuseintermediariestobringtheirproductstomarket。Theytrytoforgeadistributionchannel—asetofinterdependentorganizationsinvolvedintheprocessofmarkingaproductorserviceavailableforuseorconsumptionbytheconsumersorbusinessuser.Whydoproducersgivesomeofthesellingjobtointermediaries?Afterall,doingsomeansgivingupsomecontroloverhowandtowhomtheproductsaresold.Theuseofintermediariesresultsfromtheirgreaterefficiencyinmarkinggoodsavailabletotargetmarkets。Throughtheircontacts，experience，specialization,andscalesofoperation,intermediariesusuallyofferthefirmmovevaluethanitcanachieveonitsownefforts。Adistributionchannelmovesgoodsfromproducerstocustomers。Itovercomesthemajortime，place,andpossessiongapsthatseparategoodsandservicesfromthosewhowouldusethem.Membersofthemarketingchannelperformmanyfunctions.Somehelptocompletetransactions:1.Information。2.Promotion.3.Contact:findingandcommunicatingwithprospectivebuyers.4.Matching：fittingtheoffertothebuyer'sneeds,includingsuchactivitiesasmanufacturingandpackaging。5.Negotiation：reachinganagreementonpriceandothertermsoftheoffersothatownershiporpossessioncanbetransferred。Otherhelptofulfillthecompletedtransferred。1.Transportingandstoringgoods。2。Financing。3.Risktaking：assumingtheriskofcarryingoutthechannelwork。Thequestionisnotwhetherthesefunctionsneedtobeperformed，butratherwhoistoperformthem。Allthefunctionshavethreethingsincommon：Theyuseupscarceresource，theyoftencanbeperformedbetterthroughspecialization，andtheycanbeshiftedamongchannelmembers.Totheextentthatthemanufacturerperformsthesefunctions,itscostsgoupanditspriceshavetobehigher。Atthesametime，whensomeofthesefunctionsareshiftedtointermediaries，theproducer'scostsandpricesmaybe3lower,buttheintermediariesmustchargemoretocoverthecostsoftheirwork.Individingtheworkofthechannel,thevariousfunctionsshouldbeassignedtothechannelmemberswhocanperformthemmostefficientlyandeffectivelytoprovidesatisfactoryassortmentsofgoodstotargetconsumers.Distributionchannelscanbedescribedbythenumberofchannellevelsinvolved.Eachlayerofmarketingintermediariesthatperformssomeworkinbriningtheproductanditsownershipclosertothefinalbuyerisachannellevel.Becausetheproducerandthefinalconsumerbothperformsomework，theyarepartofeverychannel.Whenselectingintermediaries,thecompanyshoulddeterminewhatcharacteristicsdistinguishthebetterones。Itwillwanttoevaluatethethechannelmember'syearsinbusiness,otherlinescarried，growthandprofitrecord，co-operativeness,andreputation.Iftheintermediariesaresalesagents,thecompanywillwanttoevaluatethenumberandcharacteroftheotherlinescarried，andthesizeandqualityofthesalesforce.Iftheintermediaryisaretailstorethatwantsexclusiveorselectivedistribution,thecompanywillwanttoevaluatethestore’customers,location，andfuturegrowthpotential。Understandingthenatureofdistributionchannelsisimportant,aschoosingamongdistributionchannelsisoneofthemostchallengingdecisionsfacingthefirm。Marketingintermediariesareusedbecausetheyprovidegreaterefficiencyinmarkinggoodsavailabletotargetmarkets.Thekeydistributionchannelfunctionismovinggoodsfromproducerstoconsumersbyhelpingtocompletetransactionsandfulfillthecompletedtransaction。Distributionchannelscanbedescribedbythenumberofchannellevels,whichcanincludenointermediariesinadirectchannel,oronetoseveralintermediariesinindirectchannels。PromotionPromotionisoneofthefourmajorelementsofthecompany'smarketingmix.Themainpromotiontools——advertising,salespromotion，publicrelations,andpersonalselling——worktogethertoachievethecompany’scommunicationsobjectives。Peopleatalllevelsoftheorganizationmustbeawareofthemanylegalandethicalissuessurroundingmarketingcommunications.Muchworkisrequiredtoproducesociallyresponsiblemarketingcommunicatinginadvertising,personalselling,anddirectselling。Companiesmustworkhardandproactivelyat4communicatingopenly，honestly，andagreeablywiththeircustomersandresellers。市场营销策略一、市场细分和目标市场策略拥有需求，拥有购买能力并愿意开支的个体或组织组成了市场。但是,在大多数市场中，购买者的需求不一致。因此,对整个市场采用单一的营销计划可能不会成功。一个合理的营销计划应以区分市场中存在的差别为起点，这一过程被称为市场细分，它还包括将何种细分市场作为目标市场。市场细分使企业能更加有效地利用其营销资源。而且，也使得小企业能够经过集中在一两个细分上场上有效地参加竞争.市场细分的明显缺点是，其以致了比单一产品、单一大市场策略更高的生产和营销成本.但是,若是市场细分合适的话，更加吻合花销者的需求，实质大将生产更高的效率。确定目标市场有三种可供选择的策略，它们是一致市场、单一细分市场和多重细分市场。一致市场策略即采用一种营销组适用到一个整体的、无差别的市场中去。采用单一细分市场策略,企业依旧仅有一种营销组合，但它只用在整个市场的一个细分市场中.多重细分市场策略需要选择两个或更多的细分市场，而且每个细分市场分别采用一种单独的营销组合.二、产品定位管理者将注意力集中于一种品牌，并以合适的方式将其与近似的品牌相区分,但这其实不意味着该品牌就必然能够最后盈余。因此,管理者需要进行定位，即塑造与竞争品牌和竞争对手的其他品牌相关的自我品牌形象。市场营销人员能够从各种定位策略中加以选择。有时,他们决定对某一特定产品采用一种以上的策略。以下是几种主要的定位策略：1。与竞争者相关的定位对一些产品来说，最正确的定位是直接针对竞争对手。该策略特别适用于已经拥有固定的差别优势或试图加强这种优势的厂商.为排挤微办理器的竞争对手，Intel企业睁开了一项活动使用户确信它的产品优于竞争对手的产品.企业甚至为电脑制造商出钱，让它们在自己的广告中带上“IntelInside”标志。作为市场领导者，可口可乐企业推出新产品并推行其市场营销策略.同时，它亲近凝望百事可乐企业,以保证对主要竞争对手的任何一次巧妙、有效的营销举措采用相应的对策。2。与产品种类和属性相关的定位有时,企业的定位策略有必要将自己的产品与其种类和属性相联系（或相差别)。一些企业全力将其产品定位在希望的种类中,如“美国制造”。用一句某5顾问的话来说，“当你说‘美国制造’的时候,有一种强烈的感情因素在吸引着你”。因此，一家名为BostonPreparatory的规模不大的运动服制造商正在运用这种定位策略，以期胜过那些其实不是所有产品都在美国制造的权利富强的竞争对手如CalvinKiein和TommyHilfiger。经过价格和质量定位某些生产者和零售商因其高质量和高价格而出名。在零售行业，SaksFifthAvenue和NeimanMarcus企业正是定位于该价格-质量策略的.折扣店TargetKmart则是定位于该策略的反面。我们不是说折扣商店忽视质量，而是说它们更加重申廉价的价格。Penny's企业努力—而且大多获得了成功—经过升级高级衣饰线和重申设计者的名字将其商店定位于价格—质量策略上。“品牌"一词是个综合性的看法，它包括其他更狭义的理解。品牌即一个名称和(或)标志,用以鉴别一个销售者或销售企业的产品,并将之与竞争产品相差别。品牌名称由能够发音的单词、字母和（或)数字组成。品牌标志是品牌的一部分,它以符号、图案或醒目的颜色、字体的形式出现.品牌标志经过视觉鉴别，但当人们不过读出品牌名称的时候，品牌标志其实不能够够被表达出来.Crest、Coors、Gillette都是品牌名称。AT&T由醒目的线条组成的地球以及RalphLauren’sPolo的马和骑手是品牌标志，而GreenGiant(罐装冷冻菜蔬产品)和Arm&Hammer（面包苏打）既是品牌名称又是品牌标志。商标是销售者已经采用而且碰到法律保护的品牌.商标不但包括品牌标志，如好多人因此为的那样，也包括品牌名称。1946年的TheLanhamArt法案赞同厂商向联邦政府注册商标，以保护它们免受其他厂商的使用或误用.1989年见效的《商标法校正案》(TheTrademarkLawRevisionAct)旨在健全注册系统以维护美国厂商的利益。对于销售者来说,品牌能够被推行.当他们摆设于商店或出现在广告中时很简单被认出。品牌化减少了价格比较。由于在比较不相同产品时，品牌是有必要考虑的另一因素,因此品牌化减少了不过依靠价格便作出购买决定的可能.品牌的有名度还会影响到购买服务和花销品的花销者的忠诚度.最后，品牌化能够差别商品（比方Sunkist牌鲜橙、Morton牌食盐以及Domino牌食糖).三、定价定价是一个动向的过程,企业会为其所有产品设计一个定价结构.随着时间的推移，企业会改变价格结构,并将之调整到适应不相同的花销者和形势的状态。企业应采用多样的价风格整策略来适应花销集体和详尽情况的差别。一个是折扣和折让定价，及企业依批量、功能或季节来决定折扣或不相同形式的折让.第6二个策略是差别定价，即企业为不相同的顾客、产品或因地址不相同而拟定两个或两个以上的差别价格。有时企业在作价格决策时不但考虑经济因素，而且使专心理定价来传达相关产品的质量或价值信息.在促销定价时，企业会在短期内以低于商品定价销售产品，经过大甩卖来吸引更多的顾客，有时甚至低于成本销售。运用