EquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy国际经贸高级课件

TEXTGrowingInequality

Thedegreeofincomeinequalityvariesgreatlyfromregiontoregion.ItisgreatestinLatinAmericaandsub-SaharanAfrica,andlowestinEasternEurope;otherregionsfallbetweenthesetwoextremes.InLatinAmerica,theaverageGinicoefficient—themostcommonlyusedmeasureofinequality,with0representingperfectequalityand1representingtotalinequality—isalmost0.5.TheaverageGinicoefficientinsub-SaharanAfricaisslightlylower,butthereisconsiderablevariationamongcountries.IncomeinequalityhasaregionaldimensioninbothAfricaandLatinAmerica—averageincomesaresignificantlyhigherinurbanareasthaninruralareas.UnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Inrecentyears,incomeinequalityhasbeenincreasinginalargenumberofcountries.Thisincreasehasbeenmoststrikinginthetransitioneconomies,wheretheaverageGinicoefficienthadbeenaround0.25untilthelate1980s;bythemid1990s,ithadrisentomorethan0.30.Whilethismaynotappeartobealargeincrease,itisquitesignificantfortheshortperiodbeingassessed.Ginicoefficientstendtoberelativelystableincountriesoverlongperiods.IncomeinequalityhasalsoincreasedinseveralmajorindustrialcountriesandisbeginningtoincreaseinsomeEastAsiancountries.UnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Muchofthedebateaboutincomedistributionhascenteredonwageearnings.Butwagestellonlypartofthestory.Thedistributionofwealth(and,byimplication,capitalincome)ismoreconcentratedthanlaborincome.InAfricaandLatinAmerica,unequalownershipoflandhasbeenidentifiedasanimportantfactorintheoveralldistributionofincome.Furthermore,inrecentyears,therehasbeenashiftfromlabortocapitalincome(includingincomefromselfemployment)inmanycountries.Intransitioncountries,thisshifthasbeendueprimarilytotheprivatizationofstate-ownedassets.Theanalysisoftrendsinnonlaborincomeincountrieswithwelldevelopedcapitalmarketsandpensionfundsismorecomplicated.Pensionfundsandotherfinancialinstitutionsreceiveasizableportionofcapitalincome,andtheshareofcapitalincomeintotalhouseholdincometypicallychangesoverthelifecycleoftheindividualsineachhousehold.UnitNine

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IsGlobalizationtheCause?Globalizationhaslinkedthelabor,product,andcapitalmarketsofeconomiesaroundtheworld.Increasedtrade,capitalandlabormovements,andtechnologicalprogresshaveledtogreaterspecializationinproductionandthedispersionofspecializedproductionprocessestogeographicallydistantlocations.Developingcountries,withtheirabundantsupplyofunskilledlabor,haveacomparativeadvantagerelativetodevelopedcountriesintheproductionofunskilled-labor-intensivegoodsandservices.Asaresult,productionoftheseproductsindevelopedcountrieshascomeunderincreasedcompetitivepressure.Economictheorytellsusthisshouldapplydownwardpressureontherelativecompensationofunskilledworkersindevelopedcountriesandupwardpressureonthecompensationoftheircounterpartsindevelopingcountries.UnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Basedonthistheory,someauthorshaveclaimedthatglobalizationistoblameforgrowingincomeinequalityindevelopedcountries.Othersarguethatthewideninggapbetweenthewagesofskilledworkersandunskilledworkersinthedevelopedcountriesisduetothedevelopmentanddispersionofskill-intensivetechnologiesratherthantoincreasedtrade.Severalempiricalstudieshavetriedtogaugetherelativeimportanceofbothtradeandtechnologicalprogressinthedeclineofrelativewagesofunskilledworkersindevelopedcountries.Estimatesofthecontributionofincreasedtradetothetotalincreaseofthewagedifferentialbetweenunskilledandskilledworkersrangefromnegligibleto50percent.Thislargevariationisafunctionofthestructureofproductionindevelopedcountriesandtheshareoftheirlabormarketthatisindirectcompetitionwithlow-skilledworkersindevelopingcountries.UnitNine

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Thedebateregardingtheeffectofglobalizationonincomedistributionindevelopingcountriesmirrorsthedebateondevelopedcountries.Although,allotherthingsbeingequal,increasedopennesswouldbeexpectedtoincreasetherelativewagesofunskilledworkersindevelopingcountries,experiencehasbeenmixed.EvidencesuggeststhattherelativewagesofunskilledworkersincreasedinEastAsiancountriesinthe1960sand1970sbutdecreasedinLatinAmericainthe1980sandearly1990s.TherearetwopossibleexplanationsforwhywagesfellinLatinAmerica:first,theopeningupofdevelopingAsiancountries—Bangladesh,China,India,Indonesia,andPakistan—whereunskilledlaborisevenmoreabundant;second,theavailabilityofnewproductiontechnologiesthatarebiasedtowardskilledlabor.UnitNine

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Theeffectglobalizationhasonincomedistributionseemstobedeterminedtosomeextentbyacountry’slevelofdevelopmentandthetechnologiesavailabletoit.Similarly,exposuretointernationalcompetitionmaychangeinstitutions(forexample,tradeunions)andtherebyaffectincomedistribution.Someobserverscontendthat,becauseofthemobilityofcapital,globalizationlimitstheabilityofunionworkerstoachievea“unionwagepremium,”thusdecreasingthebargainingpowerofworkersvis-à-viscapital.Inaddition,globalizationmayleadtosharpshort-runchangesinthedistributionofincome,asbarrierstotradearereducedandthedistributionofproductionisreallocatedamongsectors.UnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Itisoftenarguedthatglobalizationmakesitmoredifficultforgovernmentstoimplementequitablepolicies.Increasinglymobilecapitalandlaborhavelimitedtheabilityofgovernmentstolevytaxesandtransferincometothoseaffectedbyglobalization.Totheextentthatcapitalismoremobilethanlabor,theincidenceoftaxestofinancesafetynetsforthoseaffectedbyglobalizationisshiftedtolabor.

PolicyResponsesTheextenttowhichcountrieshavefocusedonpromotingequityandthestrategiestheyhaveadoptedvarywidely.Somecountrieshaveactivelypromotedtheuseofpublicresourcestoraisetheincomesofthoseonthebottomtieroftheincomedistribution.Othershavefocusedonthetoppercentilesbylevyinghighlyprogressivetaxes.Yetothers,concernedthatpoliciestargetingthepoormayresultineconomicinefficienciesanddistortionsthatretardgrowth,havetakenanindirectapproach,seekingtohelplowincomefamiliesbystimulatingoveralleconomicgrowth.UnitNine

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InLatinAmericaduringthe1980s,theprimarygoalofpolicymakerswasachievingsustainablegrowth,andaviablebalanceofpaymentsandstructuralreformswereseenascriticaltoachievingthisgoal.Growthhasalsobeenoneoftheprimarygoalsofthetransitioneconomies,buttheirstrategieshaveincludedpoliciesaimedathelpinggroupslikelytobehurtbythetransition.Suchpolicieshaveincludedthedistributionofsharesofprivatizedenterprises,theadaptationofsocialpolicyinstrumentstoprotectvulnerablegroups,andtheestablishmentofsocialsafetynets(forexample,targetedsubsidies,cashcompensationinlieuofsubsidies,severancepayandretrainingforretrenchedpublicsectoremployees,andpublicworksprograms).However,thelackofbudgetaryresourceshasmadeimplementationofthesepoliciesdifficult.UnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Fiscalpolicy—taxationandspending—isagovernment’smostdirecttoolforredistributingincome,inboththeshortandthelongrun.However,theeffectofredistributivetaxpolicies,especiallyinthefaceofglobalization,hasbeensmall.Policymakersshouldfocusondevelopingabroadlybased,efficient,andeasilyadministeredtaxsystemwithmoderatemarginalrates.Althoughtheprimarygoalofthetaxsystemshouldbetopromoteefficiency,policymakersalsoneedtoconsiderhowtodistributetheburdenoftaxationsothesystemisseenasfairandjust.Theexpendituresideofthebudgetoffersbetteropportunitiesthanthetaxsideforredistributingincome.Thelinkbetweenincomedistributionandsocialspending—especiallyspendingonhealthandeducation,throughwhichgovernmentscaninfluencetheformationanddistributionofhumancapital—isparticularlystrong,andpublicinvestmentinthehumancapitalofthepoorcanbeanefficientwaytoreduceincomeinequalityoverthelongrun.UnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Theamountofresourcesgovernmentscanandshoulddevotetosocialexpendituresdependsonvariousfactors,includingthetax-to-GDPratioandtheresourcesdevotedtootherspending.Publicexpendituresshoulddisplaceprivateexpendituresonlywhentheyyieldhighersocialbenefits.Priorityshouldbegiventothemostproductivepublicexpenditures,andunproductivepublicexpenditures—forexample,excessivemilitaryspending,wagesforanover-staffedcivilservice,andbudgetarytransferstoinefficientpublicenterprises—shouldbecurtailed.Civilservicereformandtheprivatizationofservicesthatcanbebetterprovidedbytheprivatesector—especiallyifaccompaniedbyareallocationofexpenditurestothesocialsectors—arelikelytobebothgrowth-andequity-enhancing,particularlyindevelopingcountries,wherepublicsectoremployeescomeprimarilyfromthemiddle-andupper-middle-incomeclasses.UnitNine

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Outlaysonhealthandeducationcanimprovetheexistingpatternofincomedistribution,dependingtoalargeextentontheirallocationwithinsectorsandwhoreceivesthebenefits.Studiesshowthatspendingonbasichealthcareandprimaryeducationisfarmoreeffectiveinreachingthepoorthanspendingonhighereducationorhospital-basedcurativecare;theformerreducesdisparitiesinhumancapitalacrossincomegroupsandcandecreaseincomeinequalityinthelongrun(see“PublicSpendingonHumanDevelopment,”bySanjeevGupta,BenedictClements,andErwinTiongsoninthisissue).Studiesalsoshowthat,incountrieswithoutsomeformofhealthriskpooling,seriousillnessesarethesinglemostimportantfactordrivingfamiliesintopoverty.UnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Althoughfiscalpolicyisusuallyviewedastheprincipalvehicleforassistinglow-incomegroupsandthoseaffectedbyreformprograms,anumberofcountrieshaveintroducedspecificlabormarketpoliciesinanefforttoinfluenceincomedistribution,therationalebeingthatrelativewagesexertastronginfluenceonoverallincomeinequality.ManyEuropeancountrieshaveoptedforhighminimumwages,generousunemploymentbenefits,andawiderangeofjob-protectionmeasures.Althoughthesepoliciescanresultinrigidities,advocatesmaintainthattheyhelpachieveasociallydesirableredistributionofincome,whileopponentsarguethattheydiscouragenewinvestmentanddampenjobcreationandgrowth.TheUnitedStates,whichhasoptedformoreflexiblelabormarkets,hasachievedhighemploymentlevels,butthecostmaybegreaterincomeinequality.Tomitigatethepotentialeffectofmarketflexibilityonlow-wageworkers,theUnitedStateshasintroducedwagesubsidiesthatUnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?simultaneouslyredistributeincomeandpromoteemployment.Giventhepotentiallylargeimpactoflabormarketpoliciesonearnings,thesecompetingvisionsofthelabormarketarecentraltothedebateoverincomeinequalityinmanydevelopingandnewlyindustrializedcountries.Governmentscanalsoindirectlyaffectincomelevelsanddistributionthroughmonetarypolicyandtheiroverallmacroeconomicstance.Forexample,highinflationtendstocurtaileconomicgrowthandincreaseincomeinequality.Tradeliberalization—especiallywhenitoccursindevelopingcountriesthathavehadrestrictivetradepolicies,suchastaxationofagriculturalexportsandprotectivetariffsonimports—mayboosteconomicgrowthandleadtomoreequitableconditions.Currencydevaluationsmayalsohaveimplicationsforequity,particularlyinlow-incomecountries,wherethepoorareoftenconcentratedintheagriculture-intensiveexportsectorandmiddle-andupper-incomeurbandwellerstendtobemoredependentonimports.UnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Anotherimportantissueiswhethergovernmentsshouldfocusonoutcomes—suchasdecreasingthenumberofpeoplelivinginpoverty—oronensuringthatallmembersofsocietyhaveequalopportunities.Inextremecasesofincomeinequality,outcomesareclearlycritical.Inothercases,settingupalevelplayingfieldmaybeallthatisnecessary,andgreateremphasiscanbeplacedonpoliciesthatfacilitatemobilitybetweenincomeclassesandonensuringthatincomeandwealthareacquiredjustlyandfairly.Measuresgovernmentscantaketopromoteequalityofopportunityincludederegulatingtheeconomy;settingupstrong,accountableinstitutions,includingawell-functioningjudicialsystem;reducingopportunitiesforcorruptpractices(curbingcorruptioncandirectlyreduceincomeinequality,becausethegainsfromcorruptpracticestendtobecapturedbythewell-to-do);andprovidingadequateaccesstohealthandeducationservices.UnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Governmentsseekingtoimplementequity-orientedpoliciesfaceanumberofobstacles.Firstandforemostisthefinancingrequired:highlevelsofspendingontargetedprogramsmaynotbeconsistentwithasustainablemacroeconomicframework.Second,governmentsinmanydevelopingcountries,wherealargeshareofthepopulationisengagedinruralandinformalsectoractivities,maybeunabletoreachthemostvulnerablegroups.Theruralandinformalsectorsmayhavelimitedinteractionwithformalsectorinstitutions,includingthegovernment,makingthedeliveryofgovernmentassistance(forexample,cashtransfers)problematic.Inasimilarvein,alackofadministrativecapacitymayhamperredistributiveefforts;forexample,taxevasionisasevereproblemincountrieswithweaktaxadministration,makingitdifficultforgovernmentstousethetaxsystemasavehicletofinanceredistributivepolicies.Politicalconstraints—low-incomegroupstypicallyhavelesspoliticalpowerthanotherUnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?interestgroups—mayimpedeeffortstoreallocatespendingtowardthepoororredistributelandorotherassetstothem.Legalimpedimentsmayalsopreventgovernmentsfromtakingmeasurestopromoteequity—forexample,constitutionalrulesonrevenuesharingmaylimittheamountofresourcesacentralgovernmentcanallocatetoredistributivepolicies.(excerptedfromFinance&Development,September1998)UnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?ExercisesⅠ.TranslatethefollowingintoEnglish,usingthewordsorphrasesinthetext:1.衡量收入分配的最常用的指标themostcommonlyusedmeasuresofincomedistribution2.从劳动力市场向资本市场的转移theshiftfromlabourtocapitalmarkets3.生产专业化和专业化生产过程的扩散specializationinproductionandthedispersionofspecializedproductionprocessesUnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?4.熟练工与非熟练工之间日益拉大的工资差距5.偏向于技术劳动力的新生产技术newproductiontechniquesbiasedtowardskilledlabor6.阻碍增长的经济无效率和扭曲economicinefficiencyanddistortionsretardinggrowth7.可持续增长和可行的收支政策sustainablegrowthandaviablebalance-of-paymentspolicythewideninggapbetweenthewagesofskilledworkersandthoseofunskilledworkersUnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?8.具有广泛基础的、有效而易于管理的税收体系9.减少不同收入集团人力资本的明显差异reducedisparitiesinhumancapitalacrossincomegroups10.与宏观经济规划相一致的既定项目targetedprogramsconsistentwiththemacroeconomicframework11.关于财政收入分配的宪法原则constitutionalrulesonrevenuesharingabroadly-based,efficientandeasilyadministeredtaxsystemUnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?12.通过解除经济的规定管制来促进机会平等13.取代津贴的现金补偿cashcompensationinlieuofsubsidies14.刺激公共资源利用和整体经济增长stimulatetheuseofpublicresourcesandtheoveralleconomicgrowth15.采取有效措施促进就业和公平takeeffectivemeasurestopromoteemploymentandequitytopromoteequalityofopportunitiesthroughderegulatingeconomyUnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Ⅱ.TranslatethefollowingsentencesintoEnglish:1.关于收入分配的大部分辩论集中在工资收入上，它被认为是整体收入分配的一个重要因素。但在非洲和拉丁美洲，不平等的土地所有权是一个不可忽略的因素。(centeron)

Muchofthedebateaboutincomedistributionhascenteredonwageearnings,whichhasbeenidentifiedasanimportantfactorintheoveralldistributionofincomes.ButinAfricaandLatinAmerica,unequalownershipoflandisafactorthatcannotbeignored.UnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?2.全球化将全世界各经济体的劳动力、产品和资本市场连接起来，并间接导致生产专业化和专业化生产过程向地理位置遥远地区扩散。(dispersion)

Globalizationhaslinkedthelabor,productandcapitalmarketsoftheeconomiesaroundtheworldandhasindirectlyledtogreaterspecializationinproductionandthedispersionofspecializedproductionprocessestogeographicallydistantlocations.UnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?3.尽管财政政策被视为帮助低收入人群和受改革计划影响的人们的主要工具，许多国家采取了具体的劳动力市场政策来试图影响收入分配。(inaneffortto)

Althoughfiscalpoliciesareusuallyviewedastheprincipalvehicleforassistinglowincomegroupsandthoseaffectedbyreformprograms,quiteanumberofcountrieshaveadoptedspecificlabormarketpoliciesinanefforttoinfluenceincomedistribution.UnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?4.政府所能采取的促进机会均等的措施包括：取消对经济的规定管制；建立包括运作良好的司法体系在内的强有力的，负责任的机构；减少腐败行为的机会；提供获得健康和教育服务的充足机会等。(deregulate)Measuresgovernmentscantaketopromoteequalityofopportunitiesincludederegulatingtheeconomy;settingupstrongandresponsibleinstitutions,includingawellfunctioningjudicialsystem;reducingopportunitiesforcorruptpractices;andprovidingadequateaccesstohealthandeducationservices.UnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?5.另一个重要问题是政府是否应该关注结果，比如减少贫困人数，或保证每个人都有公平的机会。(ensure)

Anotherimportantissueiswhethergovernmentsshouldfocusonoutcomes—suchasdecreasingthenumberofpeoplelivinginpoverty,orensuringthatallmembersofsocietyhaveequalopportunities.UnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Ⅲ.PutthefollowingpassageintoEnglish:有一种关于财富分配的理论表明，不合理的分配和腐败是造成收入水平不公的主要原因。这一理论认为，财富要经历4个分配阶段——市场、政府、非政府组织、以及主要表现为腐败的非法活动。通常第一个分配阶段——市场——会导致资源分布不均，而这应该由第二个分配阶段，即政府，来纠正。在第三个阶段，财富的分配是通过非政府部门的捐赠来实现的。捐款是以慈善活动的形式赠予穷人的。接着便是对财富的非法掠夺，如抢劫、贪污、逃税和贿赂。这些对社会的公平和稳定所造成的伤害是巨大的，而且是无法测量的。UnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Onetheoryonwealthdistributionindicatesthatirrationaldistributionandcorruptionarethemajorreasonsfortheunevenincomelevel.Accordingtothistheory,wealthgoesthroughfourstagesofdistribution—themarket,thegovernment,non-governmentalorganizationsandunlawfulactivities,mainlycorruption.Usuallythefirststageofdistribution—themarket—willresultinanunevenspreadofresources,whichshouldberedressedbytheseconddistributionstage,thegovernment.Inthethirdstage,thedistributionofwealthisrealizedthroughcontributionsanddonationsmadebynon-governmentalorganizations.Thecontributionsaregiventothepoorintheformofcharityactivities.Thenfollowsillegalgrabbingofwealth,suchasrobbery,embezzlement,taxevasionandbribery.Theirharmtosocialequalityandstabilityisenormousandcan’treallybemeasured.UnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Exercise2.Bibliographicalcitations(a)Ramirez,A.G.(1995).Creatingcontextsforsecondlanguageacquisition.WhitePlains,NY:Longman(b)Inman,I.M.(1934).TypesofclayusedinancientAcapulcanpottery.HistoryofAppliedArchaeologyQuarterly,86,119-123.(c)Frampton,K.(1992).Modernarchitecture:Acriticalhistory.NewYork:ThamesandHudson.(d)Pearson,T.(1992).EvreinovandPirandello:Twotheatricalistsinsearchofthechiefthing.TheatreSurvey,32,130-136.Ⅳ.AnswerkeyforWritingresearchpapersUnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Exercise3.Bibliographicalcitations(errorcorrection)Thecorrectcitationformsgivenherearefollowedinbracketsbybriefexplanationsofwhatwaswrongintheoriginal.(a)Stein,H.(1995).Economicsofmytimeandyours.BusinessEconomics,30,19-21.[Noquotationmarkswithtitlearticle](b)Shimada,S.(Ed.).(1995).Coherentlightwavecommunicationstechnology.London:ChapmanandHall.[Placeofpublicationcomesbeforenameofpublisher](c)Winston,P.H.(1985).Artificialintellegence.NewYork:Wesley.[Italicizebooktitle]UnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?(d)Malik,M.(1990).Changesinthedistributionofventricularectopicbeatsinlong-termelectrocardiograms.MedicalandBiologicalEngineeringandComputing,28,423-430.[Italicizevolumenumber](e)Sadie,S.(1990).Historyofopera.NewYork:Norton.[Useonlyinitialsofauthor'sfirstname](f)Haggard,A.(1985).Apatient'sbestfriend.AmericanJournalofNursing,85,1375-1376.[Dateofpublicationcomesafteranthor'snameandbeforetitle](g)Wright,S.(1995).Languageplanningandpolicy-makinginEurope.LanguageTeaching,28,148-159.[Nocapitalizationoftitle,exceptforfirstwordandpropername]UnitNine

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Thedegreeofincomeinequalityvariesgreatlyfromregiontoregion.ItisgreatestinLatinAmericaandsub-SaharanAfrica,andlowestinEasternEurope;otherregionsfallbetweenthesetwoextremes.InLatinAmerica,theaverageGinicoefficient—themostcommonlyusedmeasureofinequality,with0representingperfectequalityand1representingtotalinequality—isalmost0.5.TheaverageGinicoefficientinsub-SaharanAfricaisslightlylower,butthereisconsiderablevariationamongcountries.IncomeinequalityhasaregionaldimensioninbothAfricaandLatinAmerica—averageincomesaresignificantlyhigherinurbanareasthaninruralareas.UnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Inrecentyears,incomeinequalityhasbeenincreasinginalargenumberofcountries.Thisincreasehasbeenmoststrikinginthetransitioneconomies,wheretheaverageGinicoefficienthadbeenaround0.25untilthelate1980s;bythemid1990s,ithadrisentomorethan0.30.Whilethismaynotappeartobealargeincrease,itisquitesignificantfortheshortperiodbeingassessed.Ginicoefficientstendtoberelativelystableincountriesoverlongperiods.IncomeinequalityhasalsoincreasedinseveralmajorindustrialcountriesandisbeginningtoincreaseinsomeEastAsiancountries.UnitNine

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ShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy?Muchofthedebateaboutincomedistributionhascenteredonwageearnings.Butwagestellonlypartofthestor